$Unique_ID{COW01616} $Pretitle{365} $Title{Hungary Chapter 7B. Films, Music and Folk Arts} $Subtitle{} $Author{Eugene K. Keefe} $Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army} $Subject{hungarian folk music century research sciences national europe arts musical} $Date{1973} $Log{} Country: Hungary Book: Hungary, A Country Study Author: Eugene K. Keefe Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army Date: 1973 Chapter 7B. Films, Music and Folk Arts Films After a promising start with silent pictures during World War I, the Hungarian film industry suffered a considerable setback in the economic crisis of the 1920s. It was during that time that the well-known directors Alexander Korda, Michael Curtis, and Joseph Pasternak left Hungary to gain fame in England and the United States. After the mid-1930s the sophisticated tastes of the middle and upper classes brought about a regeneration of the film industry, which had been reduced to producing third-rate musicals and melodramas. Some of the leading novelists successfully wrote scripts and directed motion pictures; the novels of Mor Jokai were adapted to the screen; and Hungarian films became popular in other parts of Europe. The communist regime considers motion pictures to be one of the major media for information and education and has devoted much energy and considerable resources to their production and distribution. The films produced in the Rakosi era, however, were blatant propaganda of no artistic merit. The relaxing of restrictions in 1955 promised an artistic rebirth of the Hungarian cinema, which was stifled by the crushing of the uprising in 1956. Since the early 1960s several films of high artistic and technical quality have been produced by a group of young, talented directors. Such film as Love, directed by Karoly Makk, and Falcons, directed by Istvan Gal, have been called cinematic masterpieces by international critics. Music Until about 1905 Hungarian-composed music and national folk music followed distinctly different paths. The former reflected mainly the influence of West European musical idioms, even though rhythmic and melodic characteristics of ancient folksongs and dances were discernible in some of the compositions. Folk music was alien to the polyphonic development of European music and survived in pure form only among the peasantry. Its main characteristic was the Central Asian pentatonic scale and a descending melodic structure that conformed with the rhythmic pattern of the Hungarian language. Songs were learned by ear and passed from generation to generation. Hardly any of this music appeared in written form until around 1900. Under the impetus of the romantic nationalism of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries groups of characteristic songs and dances were composed that came to be regarded in Hungary and throughout Europe as the national music of Hungary. These compositions were not true folksongs, however, even though they were based on traditional folk rhythms and melodies. Their source was an old military recruiting dance, the verbunkos. Inspired by the ideal of Hungarian nationhood, the country's composers and music instructors transplanted the melody and rhythm of the verbunkos into the context of European musical idioms, notably four-four time and the major-minor keys. The outcome was a striking musical style with great instrumental flexibility, a broad but distinct melodic pattern, and a rich variety of rhythms. The so-called Hungarian compositions of great musicians like Haydn, Mozart, and Brahms reflect the distinct influence of the verbunkos style. The stylistic successor of the verbunkos were songs composed in the style of peasant folksongs. They achieved spectacular success and popularity as a result of their rendition by Gypsy players, whose debut as popular musicians dates to the seventeenth century. In their highly ornamental and versatile interpretations, these compositions assumed striking forms and were regarded as genuine folk music both in Hungary and abroad. Ferenc (Franz) Liszt was one of the most celebrated musicians of nineteenth-century Europe and a leading romantic composer. His symphonic poems, rhapsodies, and church music, resplendent with heroic pomp and glowing visions, are among the best musical expressions of romantic ideals. In his Hungarian Rhapsodies, Saint Elizabeth's Legend, and Coronation Mass, Liszt dramatically expressed that Hungarian musical substance that had emerged with the adaptations of the verbunkos and the peasant folksongs. He founded the Hungarian Academy of Music, where he was noted for his accomplishments in the pedagogy of the piano. He is still revered by his compatriots as a symbol of Hungarian musical creativity. During the second half of the nineteenth century adaptations and commercialized versions of traditional folk music continued largely to represent Hungarian music abroad. The compositions of Jeno Hubay and Enro Dohnanyi, however, were also well known in the metropolitan cities of Europe. Audiences in Vienna, Budapest, and other parts of the Austro-Hungarian Empire thrilled to the operettas of Ferenc Lehar, Pongrac Kacsoh, and Imre Kalman; many of them are still popular. An authentic national music came into being at the beginning of the twentieth century from the pens of Bela Bartok and Zoltan Kodaly. Their music celebrated the resolution of the basic problem of the Hungarian culture ethos-the expression of an Eastern cultural heritage in European form. The spectacular acclaim of Bartok and Kodaly also revitalized the Hungarians' sense of solidarity with Western culture. Bartok and Kodaly devoted their early years to the intensive study of folksongs. They traveled from village to village in every region, recording dances, ballads, and songs, many of which pointed to the pagan past and revealed the Magyar musical heritage in its pure form. Bartok, who died in 1945, is considered one of the great modern musicians. In the context of its time, his music is novel in rhythm and harmony and singularly expressive in melody. Kodaly renders the lyric depth and fiery pathos of folksong themes in the framework of classical compact forms. He initiated new concepts in choir techniques that revitalized choral singing and developed a system of musical education for children utilizing choral singing as a base. Under Kodaly's influence, new choirs and folksong ensembles gained national repute in the 1930s and have since become an outstanding feature of Hungarian musical life. For the young composers of the post-World War II era, folklore influence in music is an exhausted style that they reject. Instead, they experiment with the various contemporary styles and techniques, revert back to classical forms and, often, attempt to merge the old with the new. Outstanding among the young composers is Sandor Szokolay, whose opera Blood Wedding, based on the play by Garcia Lorca, is performed all over the world. Hungarian youth, like young people elsewhere, have embraced rock music as their own form of musical expression. One Western source estimated that some 4,000 rock ensembles performed regularly at various youth gathering places in 1971. Rock music is seen by the young as one of the few outlets of free self-expression open to them. The authorities have tolerated the rock boom despite occasional public condemnations of its bourgeois decadence. Musical life in the early 1970s was active and varied. Its focus, however, was on performing rather than composing. Amateur orchestras and chamber music groups were found in all cities and larger towns. The five largest cities each have a professional orchestra, which presents concerts in their home city and in neighboring towns. A large number of Hungarian performing artists have gained international reputations. Among the best known are conductors Antal Dorati, George Szell, and Georg Solti, pianist Geza Anda, and violinist Joszef Szigeti. Although they have all lived abroad for some time, they are a source of pride to Hungarians everywhere. Folk Arts The salient feature of the decorative folk arts, such as pottery, carving, and embroidery, is the rich but uncluttered patterns. Distinctive traits are present in the art of each region. The government has been promoting and subsidizing folk art in its various forms. The agency responsible for the promotion of folk arts, including folk dancing, is the Institute of Folk Art. There are a number of folk art cooperatives, notably in Mezokovesd, center of the famous Matyo embroidery, and in Kishunhalas, which is renowned for its lace. Most of the products of cooperatives and of individual artists are intended for export. Outstanding artists are awarded the title of master of folk arts. The use of motifs that symbolize socialist themes is encouraged, but most folk art continues to follow traditional lines. Pottery has flourished on the Great Plain where suitable clay was available in large quantities. Before the nineteenth century, pottery was unglazed, varnished with pebbles, and smoked black in the kiln. Some of this black pottery is still manufactured in Nedudvar. The area of Hodmezovasarhely is famous for its green-glazed brandy flasks with patriotic inscriptions. Mezokut is known for its elaborately decorated jugs. Carving is the specialty of herdsmen, who decorate their utensils, such as canes, whip handles, penknives, flutes, and pipes. The most frequently used motifs are scenes of everyday life, figures of national heroes, and patriotic symbols. A characteristic branch of folk art is embroidery. Furriers and tailors decorate thick, woolen frieze coats, long sheepskin cloaks, and short sheepskin jackets worn by peasants and herders. The designs are lavish embroidery or colorful leather applique work that utilize floral patterns almost exclusively. The patterns are concentrated on the back and sleeves of the garment. Adaptations of these decorated coats and jackets have been popular with city dwellers in Hungary and in other parts of Europe. The delicate lacework of Kiskunhalas in internationally appreciated. More than sixty varieties of crocheting stitches are used to execute the delicate lace patterns. Known as Halas lace, this was a consistently popular export item, which competed successfully with Brussels lace. The lacemaking cooperatives continue to receive active government support. The traditional costumes, which used to be the main outlet for artistic creativity of the peasants, are no longer worn regularly. They have been replaced in daily use by standardized manufactured items, as have the embroidered linens, pottery, and carved wooden utensils formerly used in the peasant household. The costumes continue to be worn on festivals and special occasions and have become, in fact, costumes rather than the accepted attire that they once were. The Hungarian people love to dance. Typical of the dances is the male solo. Even in the mixed dances of men and women, the man often becomes separated from his partner and performs a solo display of intricate steps and leaps. A proud military bearing is characteristic of the male dancing. The upper body remains erect and calm, and the rhythmic movement of the legs is often accentuated by the use of spurs. The old military dance, the verbunkos, and the various herdsmen's dances are performed by men in groups, although they may also be danced alone. The emphasis is on display of individual virtuosity in performing variations of traditional steps, and there is little teamwork. The mixed dances of men and women combine graceful dignity with fiery rhythm. By popular usage, all dances performed by mixed groups of men and women are called csardas, even though each of the dances and their various figures have individual names. The communist regime has supported folk dance research and encouraged folk dancing as a form of mass culture. Folk dance ensembles under special instructors are organized in many schools and factories. Professional folk dance troupes enjoy wide popularity at home and abroad. Fine Arts and Architecture Hungary's achievements in the fine arts and architecture illustrate the nation's ready assimilation of West European art forms. Nevertheless, distinct national characteristics are discernible in painting, sculpture, and architectural forms. These are expressed mainly by a calmness and a simplicity that captures the essence without laborious detail. The monuments and remains of fine arts represent to Hungarians the nation's affinity with, and contribution to, Western civilization; they are a source of national pride known to most Hungarians. During the Romanesque period, which lasted until the thirteenth century, the influence of northern Italian Romanesque art predominated. The church of Jak in western Hungary, with the fine ornamental details of its portals, is one of the outstanding Romanesque edifices of Central Europe. The Renaissance period reached its apogee under King Matyas, whose Corvina Library exemplified the Hungarian Renaissance. Italian and Hungarian miniature painters and craftsmen decorated the pages and cut the exquisite, gold-embossed leather covers for this unique collection of books, the largest in Europe at the time. Several volumes from the Corvina are preserved in libraries abroad, including the Morgan Library in New York City. During the period from the fourteenth century to the sixteenth century, goldsmiths and other metal craftsmen were noted for the design and workmanship in vessels, church ornaments, and jewelry. The wire-enamel technique they employed has been known in Europe as a Hungarian specialty. Working in gold and metal is one of the oldest forms of Hungarian artistic expression. The earliest examples have been found in graves dating to the conquest of the Carpathian Basin in 896. During the national revival of the nineteenth century, fostering the arts became a national cause. The dominant themes of artists and sculptors were historical scenes, national heroes, and the peasants and their way of life, particularly those of the plains. The National Museum was built by public donations, and artists were sponsored by the middle classes as well as by the aristocracy. Hungarian painters assimilated the dominant painting styles of Europe during that period. Historical painting was prominently represented. A tendency toward visionary expression led to a relatively early assimilation of symbolism, and impressionism was of lasting influence. The neoclassic style dominated architecture and sculpture. The characteristic architectural feature of Hungarian cities, however, is the baroque style of the late eighteenth century. Many excellent examples of baroque exteriors and interiors are found in the churches, castles, and other buildings in the larger towns. The national revival painter Mihaly Munkacsi is commonly known as the greatest Hungarian painter. His best known paintings depict scenes from the lives of the less fortunate levels of the population. Munkacsi was one of the most celebrated painters in Europe during the second half of the nineteenth century. Although Budapest was traditionally the center of artistic life, around the beginning of the twentieth century several art colonies were founded by outstanding painters who sought to express modern painting styles in the Hungarian ethnic and scenic milieu. The colonies attracted painters from other parts of Europe as well as from Hungary. The most important colony was that at Nagybanya in Transylvania, which exerted a strong influence on modern Hungarian painting of the twentieth century. Realism derived from a close observation of nature and combined with some of the techniques of the French expressionists was the characteristic style of Nagybanya painters. Between the two world wars Hungarian painters continued to keep in touch with and absorb the various European styles, but cubism, fauvism, and surrealism had relatively few followers. The dominant painters of the period were the postimpressionists Istvan Csok and Jozsef Rippl-Ronai. Sculptor Ferenc Medgyessy won national acclaim with his simple, heroic forms. In architecture there were attempts to introduce elements of Hungarian folk art into the ornamental details of public buildings, whereas apartment houses reflected the influence of the German functional school. The imposition of themes from socialist life and the policy of socialist realism limited artistic theme and quality after 1949. The requirement of universal clarity in artistic expression created a style that resembled photographs and propaganda posters. Nevertheless, outstanding artists, such as Istvan Szonyi, Aurel Bernath, Istvan Csok, and Gyula Rudnay, continued to paint in their customary styles and even received commissions from the government to decorate new public buildings. Landscapes and other neutral themes dominated the painting of the 1950s. In the early 1960s the fine arts in Hungary again came under the influence of the main trends in Europe. Great variety has been evident in styles and in themes, especially among the young artists who experiment widely. The graphic arts have emerged as important mediums of expression, and Lajos Szalay is the most outstanding exponent. Bela Kondor is generally considered as the most original among the young painters. Architecture since World War II has been dominated by the ornate, Soviet-monumental style in public buildings, on the one hand, and stark, functional concrete apartment complexes on the other. Many architectural monuments have been restored and renovated, but little originality has been evident. Scholarship and Science Hungarian scholars and scientists have been especially successful in the natural sciences and mathematics and have made notable contributions to contemporary philosophical thought. Many of their accomplishments are internationally recognized. Scientists and scholars have frequently played major roles in the country's political life and have enjoyed high social prestige. The national revival during the nineteenth century invigorated literary and scientific activities. Its effect upon historical and ethnographic studies was to produce a romanticized and glorified interpretation of Magyar history and peasant culture. A number of Hungarians made important contributions in the nineteenth century to the development of modern mathematics and technology. Janos Bolyai was an early contributor in the field of non-Euclidian geometry. Anyos Jedlik built the first electric motor in 1828 and an electric dynamo in 1861. Lorand Eotvos invented the gravity balance. Donat Banki invented the carburetor for fuel-burning motors. Titus Blathy developed the alternating current transformer. The methods of disease prevention advocated by Ignac Semmelweiss were universally adopted after his death, although they had been discredited during his lifetime. His discoveries in pathology led to the conquest of childbed fever, which had caused the death of many women in childbirth. Several ethnographers made important contributions to their field through their search for the ethnic origins of the Magyars in Asia. Among them were Sandor Korosi-Csoma and Aurel Stein. Hungarian scientific and scholarly activities during the early twentieth century attained distinction both in scope and quality. Research in sociology, ethnography, and psychology was significant. Many of the followers of Sigmund Freud, who expanded on his theories, and many of the anti-Freudian psychologists were Hungarian. Much original research was performed in the natural sciences, medicine, and mathematics, which paved the way for major developments at later times. After World War II much Hungarian scientific and intellectual talent was scattered beyond the country's borders. Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, the Nobel Prize-winning biochemist who isolated Vitamin C; Janos Neuman, the mathematician whose theories led to the development of computers; and Edward Teller, the noted nuclear physicist-all are of Hungarian origin. Scholarship and science, which formerly had enjoyed a high degree of independence, came under complete state control after the Communists took power in 1949. The doctrinal demands of communism and the imposition of Soviet science as a model greatly hampered independent theoretical research, especially in the social sciences. Despite the restraints, however, most Hungarian scholars have found ways to remain faithful to scholarly integrity. Since the early 1960s the restrictions imposed by doctrinal demands and Soviet models have been greatly relaxed. Although they are urged to apply their work to Marxist ends, scholars and scientists may utilize non-Marxist theories in their research as long as this does not present a direct threat to the stability of the regime or to the relationship between the regime and the Soviet Union. Recognizing the importance of the natural sciences in advancing economic production, the regime has extended considerable support to these branches of learning. The study of ethnography has also received strong backing. The focus in ethnography has been the disappearing peasant subculture. Much research has been devoted to the collection of descriptive data about folklore and traditional peasant life in the various regions. Analytical research in the processes of social change has only recently caught the interest of Hungarian scholars. A notable contribution in modern philosophy has been made by the Marxist philosopher George Lukacs. He first received recognition in 1923 with the publication of History and Class Consciousness, which has influenced both Marxist and non-Marxist thought since that time. Starting out as a classical Marxist, Lukacs later developed his ideas into what has been variously described as "democratic," "revisionist," or "humanist" Marxism. In the process, he repudiated many of his own earlier theories. In his later years, Lukacs became particularly concerned with developing an ontology and a system of ethics suitable to Marxist ideals. His final work, Toward an Ontology of Social Being, is scheduled for publication in 1973. Since Lukacs' death in 1971, his student and follower, Agnes Heller, has pursued the same ideas and has developed them further. Her reputation and influence among both Marxist and non-Marxist philosophers are growing steadily. Scientific research in both the social and natural sciences is carried out at all the universities, at special scientific institutes, and at research centers in industrial and agricultural enterprises. All research is supervised and coordinated by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, which includes among its members the highest authorities in the various fields of learning. The academy is divided into nine branches of learning: language and literary sciences, sociological and historical sciences, mathematics and physics, agricultural sciences, medicine, technical sciences, chemistry, biology, and psychological sciences. Election to membership in the academy is one of the highest honors accorded to a scholar. In the mid-1960s the Academy of Sciences had thirty-nine research institutes devoted to basic research in both the social and physical sciences. Another ninety-two research institutes, guided by but not directly affiliated with the Academy of Sciences, were concerned almost entirely with applied research for industry and agriculture. Research that is being done at the various institutes as well as other scholarly work is discussed and publicized in several dozen scholarly and scientific periodicals and books. The Academy of Sciences in the late 1960s published over two dozen such periodicals in Hungarian and an equal number in several foreign languages, including English.