$Unique_ID{COW01615} $Pretitle{365} $Title{Hungary Chapter 7A. Artistic and Intellectual Expression} $Subtitle{} $Author{Eugene K. Keefe} $Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army} $Subject{hungarian expression life literature national artists artistic intellectual writers period} $Date{1973} $Log{} Country: Hungary Book: Hungary, A Country Study Author: Eugene K. Keefe Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army Date: 1973 Chapter 7A. Artistic and Intellectual Expression Since the eleventh century Hungarian artistic and intellectual activity has developed within the framework of West European civilization, yet it has a distinct national character. Since the earliest periods, and especially as a result of the rise of the Hungarian vernacular in the sixteenth century, large segments of the population have shared in the creation and reception of one or another form of artistic and intellectual expression. Hungarian artists and writers have striven for a synthesis of specific national character and Western forms within the overall European cultural tradition. The people take great pride in their cultural achievements. Artistic and intellectual creativity has been regarded not only as contributing to general human values but also as serving the Hungarian nation by nurturing its spirit. Artists and intellectuals have therefore always enjoyed a favored position in society as transmitters of the aspirations of the people. They are often looked to for leadership and guidance in times of national stress, more so than the politicians. For that reason, artists and intellectuals as a group continue to feel responsible for the spiritual well-being of the nation. The communist government has promoted pride in the cultural heritage by devoting considerable funds and effort to the support and promotion of artistic and intellectual expression. It has been keenly aware, however, of the potential for protest and social criticism in art, literature, and music. Many times in Hungarian history cultural life has been more nearly the center of political activity than has the official political arena. Literature, in particular, has been a traditional vehicle for the expression of internal political ideas, for national reform, and for social criticism. For this reason, the communist leadership has tried to keep artistic and intellectual expression under control but has been comparatively liberal and has not imposed overbearing censorship. In recent years the nature of the cultural life has been a clear indicator of the political situation in the country. Despite controls, artists and intellectuals have been active. Not all creative effort becomes public; some of it remains known only to a select circle until circumstances are propitious for making it public. Symbolism and allusion have been characteristic of Hungarian artistic expression through the ages. Artists are therefore able to communicate with their audiences even in times of relatively strict censorship as long as they do not provoke an audience into open protest. The Arts and Sciences Under Communism Since 1949 artistic and intellectual activity has been subject to the cultural policy of the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party (MSZMP-see Glossary). During the 1949-55 period the policy for the arts consisted of strict adherence to the concept of socialist realism as developed in the Soviet Union, whereby art, music, and literature were required to promote communist ideology and present an idealized picture of communist society. In order to impart the ideological message, artistic and intellectual expression had to be understood by the common man and, therefore, according to the Communists, could only take the form of straightforward representative statements. In the sciences, all scholarly work and research had to be based on the precepts of Marxism-Leninism and on the theories of accepted Soviet scholars, such as the later-discredited biologist Trofim Denisovich Lysenko. Basic research in any field was discouraged in favor of work directly related to the industrialization and socialization of the country. Under the short-lived regime of Imre Nagy, cultural controls became less restrictive, and artistic and intellectual expression burgeoned with creativity and life. After the 1956 uprising, tight restrictions and controls were reimposed for a time, and cultural life was moribund until the early 1960s. Since that time considerable freedom of form and theme has existed, although the regime continues to determine what may or may not be made public. Provided that their work is not openly hostile to the regime or to the Soviet Union and does not pose a threat to the established order by promoting ideas that would undermine that order, artists and scholars have been free to express their ideas in whatever form or style they choose. From time to time controls are tightened if the regime deems it necessary for domestic or foreign political purposes. The limits of freedom in artistic and intellectual expression, although not clearly defined, are well understood by both the intellectuals and the authorities. Intellectuals know that the government, in order to preserve itself, cannot allow complete freedom of expression. This was made especially clear by the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. The government, on the other hand, knows that excessive controls and repression will lead to open revolt, as it did in 1956. Each side, therefore, tries to accomplish its aims without overstepping the limits. Self-censorship on the part of the artists and intellectuals, rather than government-imposed censorship, has been the controlling factor in cultural life. A principal aim of cultural policy since 1949 has been to popularize the arts and sciences by making them accessible to all segments of the population and to utilize those mediums for the promotion of communist values. Science has been presented as the only logical and acceptable basis for a world view and for the customs and conventions that govern men's lives. The arts have been popularized by greatly expanding the facilities that present them to the public and by state subsidization. Many new orchestras, theater companies, publishers, and art galleries have come into existence since World War II. Touring exhibits and road companies take the arts into small towns and villages. Radio and television have been extensively utilized to promote the arts and learning. Through state support the prices of books and admission tickets have been kept extremely low in order to bring them within the reach of everyone. Efforts to mobilize artistic and intellectual expression for the indoctrination of the population with communist values and ideas proved unsuccessful during the regime of Matyas Rakosi. Artists and intellectuals refused to lend their efforts to the purpose and, for the most part, withdrew from public life. The public, for its part, showed little interest in art, music, literature, and scholarly work that was produced for propaganda purposes. More recently the government and the party have adopted subtler methods for guiding the content of artistic and intellectual expression in the desired direction. An artist or scholar must communicate his ideas to an audience in order to achieve fulfillment. To reach that audience, his work must be accepted by a publisher, art gallery, theater company, radio, or other outlet, all of which are run by the state in conformity to the guidelines on cultural policy. Thus, only work that meets these guidelines can reach the public. Many artists and scholars, of course, are content to work for themselves or a limited audience of trusted friends. For the most part, however, they adapt their ideas and principles in order to reach a wider audience. From a material standpoint, the life of a creative artist in contemporary Hungary is far more secure than that of his counterpart in a capitalist country. Creative expression is seen as a social function; therefore society owes the creative artist an assured livelihood. This livelihood is provided either through regular salaries from publishing houses, from academies of music or art, and from other agencies that employ artists or through stipends paid to creative artists who do not have a regular salary to depend on. Free or low-cost room and board are also available to creative artists and their families at special artists' colonies or retreats operated by professional unions in the creative arts and by government agencies for the promotion of the arts and sciences. Under this system, however, the artist is under constant pressure to produce in order to justify his salary or stipend. Many of the younger artists who do not yet have a reputation have complained that they must focus on quantity rather than quality in their artistic expression and thereby are inhibited from developing their true talents. Literature The first literary productions in Hungary were hymns, historic and chronicles, and liturgical compilations-all written in Latin. Ancient pre-Christian ballads and epic songs were passed on by word of mouth. Condemned by the Roman Catholic Church and the educated classes, they lived on among the common people and reached the lower nobility through renditions of troubadors. The Hungarian language was used in medieval times for conversation among all levels of the population and eventually replaced Latin in religious hymns, sermons, and prayers. The thirteenth-century Funeral Oration is probably the earliest written document in Hungarian. The rise of the Hungarian vernacular began with the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century. In order to reach a wide audience, Protestant churchmen used Hungarian in spreading the religious tenets of the Reformation and in debates with the Roman Catholic Church. Because Protestantism was at that time regarded as the Hungarian religion as opposed to the Roman Catholicism of the Habsburgs, the vernacular also became a symbol of spiritual national resistance against efforts to germanize the population (see ch. 2). The first translation of the Bible was published in 1590. Count Miklos Zrinyi was Hungary's first major epic poet. His Siege of Sziget, recounting his great-grandfather's heroic stand against the Turks, and his political essay Medicine Against Turkish Opiate became calls to resistance against oppression and to the rejuvenation of the national spirit. Folk ballads and folk songs inspired the so-called kurucz ballads of Prince Ferenc Rakoczi's soldiers during the rebellion against Austria from 1703 to 1711. These ballads influenced Hungary's literature and music during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and were popular with all segments of the population. The Romantic Period, which reached its peak around the middle of the nineteenth century,is considered by Hungarians to be their golden age of literature. The period produced the nation's cherished triumvirate of poets-Sandor Petofi, Janos Arany, and Mihaly Vorosmarty-and its classic prose writers-Miklos Josika, Zsigmond Kemeny, and Mor Jokai. Politically, too, the poets and authors were the moving spirits of the era of national reform and of the struggle for independence. Descended from a humble background, Petofi became the poet of the democratic intelligentsia and of the common people. His folksongs, his poetic themes of life, country, and freedom, and his rejoicing in battle made him the nation's hero. The defiant public reading of his National Song on March 15, 1848, sparked the War of Independence, in which he was killed in battle. His poems have remained popular over the years because of their exceptional lyricism and because they are the incarnation of Hungarian aspirations. Arany is the contemplative genius of Hungarian epic poetry. His poems reveal a sound knowledge of history and familiarity with psychological problems. His principal epic work, the Death of Buda, is taken from the history and mythology of the Huns. His major work, the Toldi trilogy, is seen by Hungarians as the classic expression of the Magyar sense of destiny. Vorosmarty wrote epics, lyrics, and drama. He is considered to be one of the masters of lyric poetry. Philosophy, worldly wisdom, and the patriot's grief dominate his poems. Drawing extensively from the traditions of folksong and legend and from the imagery and typically descriptive qualities of Hungarian speech, these poets developed a colorful language of metaphor and symbolism. To this language the Hungarian reading public developed a special sensitivity, which has remained typical of their literary tastes. The novel became a predominant literary form after the middle of the nineteenth century. During the second half of the century prose writers largely abandoned the romantic plot and elaborate style of earlier novels and, instead , portrayed the lives and environment of the various classes of society. Most of the novels, however, depicted the middle class, the gentry, and the peasantry-especially the last two-in an idealized manner and neglected their real problems and difficulties. The first half of the twentieth century, especially the period between the two world wars, was an age of literary debates and cultural revaluation. The coffeehouse became an important arena of intellectual life. Artists, writers, and intellectuals in search of closer contact with the new artistic and intellectual trends of Western Europe associated themselves with a literary-political periodical called Nyugat, founded in 1908. In addition to embracing the new forms and thoughts and popularizing them in the form of translations, the authors of Nyugat synthesized these with Hungarian themes. The greatest poet of the Nyugat generation was Endre Ady, who is considered to be the founder of modern Hungarian poetry and the most influential poet since Petofi. Like Petofi, Ady was a poet of sensuous love and strong expression of patriotism. His revaluation of the national destiny, however, was the antithesis of the romantic-patriotic concept of heroic past and promising future. According to Ady, the Magyar past was full of misfortune and oppression, and the fulfillment of the Magyar destiny at the crossroads of Europe was an impossible task. Despite this, Ady believed, the nation must fight with heroic compulsion. Ady stressed the Magyars' Eastern origins and their loneliness in Europe, but he also advocated a rapprochement between neighboring peoples. His concept of "tragic Hungarianhood" exerted a powerful influence on the generation of the interwar period. His sensitivity to the plight of the workers and to the horrors of war and his encounters with some of the eccentricities of capitalism promoted occasional outbursts of political radicalism that inspired a number of revolutionary poems. The best scholar among the poets of the Nyugat generation was Mihaly Babits. An essayist of note, he was the leader of the elite of Hungarian literature during the interwar period. An outstanding poet of the interwar period who was not affiliated with Nyugat was Attila Jozsef. In his poverty-stricken youth he formed a bond with the proletariat, and his poems tell of the life and sorrows of the poor. Jozsef joined the illegal communist party but was later expelled. Throughout his life he suffered mental illness, which drove him to suicide at the age of thirty-two. His poetry is considered by Hungarians to be the continuation of Ady's lyric tradition. His brief affiliation with the communist movement, his lower class background, and his fight against social injustice have elevated him to a position of exceptional honor under the communist regime. A strong influence was exerted on the literature of the interwar period by the populist movement, which began before World War I. The populists considered folk culture the source of distinct Hungarian values and expressed the growing demand for social and political reform; they were especially concerned with the peasantry and demanded that they be given a major role in mapping the nation's future. The movement was supported by intellectuals in all fields, but its main impetus derived from artists and writers. Some elements of the movement, including authors Peter Veres and Pal Szabo, formed the National Peasant Party, which had a specific political program of economic and social reform. One of the original populist writers was Zsigmond Moricz. He portrayed peasant poverty and the vacuity of rural middle class life in stark realism. A controversial writer before World War I and during the early years of the regime of Miklos Horthy, his popularity rapidly increased during the interwar period. Dezso Szabo, another populist author, was a fervent nationalist. He idealized the peasant's way of life and became its strong advocate. The so-called second generation of populist writers includes, among others, Laszlo Nemeth and Gyula Illyes. Nemeth's long, analytical novels describe in careful detail the lives of middle class families and, through such descriptions, sketches all of Hungarian society. Although completely humorless and lacking a definite style, Nemeth convinces his reader by narrative power. Gyula Illyes is regarded as the Hungarian poet laureate. He became famous after the publication of The People of the Plains, a sociological novel that deals with the lives of impoverished peasants on landed estates. He spent many years in Paris studying the modern French poets, and his lyric poetry was immediately acclaimed by Hungarian critics and readers. The force of Hungarian poetry, Illyes feels, is the uniqueness of the Hungarian language. Despite a strong commitment to examine the social issues of his time, including those of power and morality, Illyes' left-wing tradition and his stature at home and abroad have saved him from being silenced by communist censors. During the first few years after World War II there was a burgeoning of literature. Writers and poets who had spent the war in exile returned and published their wartime writing. Others, who had remained at home in silence during the Nazi period, also brought forth works that they had written but could not or would not publish earlier. The themes of social injustice, tyranny, and human suffering permeated this postwar literature. In keeping with established tradition, poetry was in the forefront of the literary revival. Outstanding and most challenging among the postwar poets is Sandor Weores, who developed a highly personal style through the assimilation of modern literary trends and aspects of oriental philosophy. Together with Illyes, Weores is regarded as an outstanding contemporary Hungarian poet. A new generation of poets, most of them of peasant origin and communist oriented, came to the fore in the postwar years. From among them, Agnes Nemes Nagy, Laszlo Benjamin, Laszlo Nagy, and Ferenc Juhasz have emerged over the years as major talents. Their poetry is strongly lyrical and full of modern imagery. All of them have experimented with new forms to express their feelings. Extremely popular with the youth of the late 1960s was Ferenc Baranyi, whose free verse appealed to their hopes and frustrations. Most critics, however, consider his poetry to have little lasting merit. The period of the Rakosi dictatorship, 1949 to 1954, is often referred to as the bleakest period in Hungarian literature. Most writers preferred to remain silent rather than submit to the dictates of communist ideology. The literary production that succeeded in passing the censor and being published was rejected by the public. When Imre Nagy's New Course relaxed the controls on culture, writers sprang back to life, and literature again became the outlet for expressing popular dissatisfactions with the existing order. Writers and poets, following Hungarian tradition, took on political roles as the spokesmen for the demands of the people. This so-called writers' revolt was the prelude to the Hungarian uprising of 1956. The uprising was followed by a period of tight control and by reprisals against those writers who were held responsible for its instigation. Many of them fled abroad; others were imprisoned. Since the early 1960s, however, literature has enjoyed the relative freedom characteristic of Hungarian life as a whole during the regime of Janos Kadar. An extraordinary amount of poetry, prose, and other writing is published regularly and eagerly consumed by the public. The literature represents every conceivable style and deals with almost any subject that does not undermine the authority of the regime. Well-established writers, such as Illyes, Weores, Nemeth, and others of the older generation, continue to be popular and exert their influence on younger authors. Younger writers who began their careers under the restrictions of socialist realism utilize their new freedom of expression by experimenting with form and style. Literary criticism has also been lively. Writers, critics, and historians engage in lengthy polemics in the periodical press over the merits of a particular piece of literature, a particular author, or a specific style. Much discussion has also been devoted to examining the role of literature in socialist society. Theater Hungarian theater is little known outside of the area that once comprised the Austro-Hungarian Empire because most of it deals with national problems and matters of local interest rather than with universal themes. A notable exception is Imre Madach's The Tragedy of Man, a monumental nineteenth-century drama examining man's destiny in the context of world history. Over the years, the play has been translated into many languages and played on many stages. Ferenc Molnar's plays are also internationally recognized, although many of his countrymen consider him an average playwright. Hungarian theater, like that of other small nations in Eastern and Central Europe, developed primarily as a means for promoting national ideals and fostering the national language in the face of foreign domination. The opening of the National Theatre in Budapest in 1837 was an event of major significance not only to the cultural life of the city but also to the romantic movement of national revival of that time. Plays such as Joszef Kotona's Bank Ban and Vorosmarty's Csongor and Tunde aroused enthusiastic response from the public for their accent on national themes and, together with The Tragedy of Man, have become the great classics of the Hungarian stage. To most Hungarians theatergoing is an important social and intellectual activity. Current plays are discussed in everyday conversation, and the Budapest theater audience has a reputation for being sophisticated and highly critical. Realism, naturalism, and symbolism were the representative trends in stage directing and acting until the mid-1950s. Since then, there has been a trend toward abstract, symbolistic expression and the use of modern stage techniques. Traditional forms of acting and staging are still popular, however. The same theater company is often three repertory companies in one: the company as a whole presenting large and elaborate productions in a large theater; a smaller group of some members of the company specializing in intimate theater; and an experimental group presenting new and different plays and techniques. An extremely popular form of theater has been the presentation of satire in cabarets. Such satire flourished during the interwar period and was revived after the relaxation of political controls in the 1960s. The satire of cabaret shows is caustic and to the point. Politics and the trials and tribulations of daily life are favorite subjects. The communist leadership is said to tolerate satire as an escape valve mechanism for the people. The theory is that, if people can laugh at the things that make life difficult, they will not try to force a change. All theater is subsidized by the government. The five leading companies are financed by the national government, and the others, by local governments. Ticket prices are extremely low, and free performances are often given for schoolchildren. The State Traveling Theater operates about a dozen road companies, which take theater into the more remote areas of the country. Many of the municipal theater companies also tour the smaller towns and villages in their areas. The repertory is chosen by the director of each company, subject to approval by government control organs. Companies often become known for a particular style of production that reflects the director's specialty or preference.