$Unique_ID{COW01613} $Pretitle{365} $Title{Hungary Chapter 6A. Education} $Subtitle{} $Author{Eugene K. Keefe} $Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army} $Subject{education school schools secondary system percent elementary higher communist number} $Date{1973} $Log{Table 6.*0161301.tab } Country: Hungary Book: Hungary, A Country Study Author: Eugene K. Keefe Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army Date: 1973 Chapter 6A. Education Although the educational system in Hungary under the Communists differs substantially from the pre-World War II system, broadly speaking, the changes are more a matter of degree and emphasis than of kind. The Communists used the structure of the old system as a foundation on which to build and develop a system suited to their own needs. Religion was a dominant influence in prewar Hungarian education. Although the Communists undertook a vigorous campaign to rid the educational system of this influence, over a period of time agreements have been made between church and state. As a result, church schools still continue to exist in Hungary. Similarly, prewar education above the elementary level was generally limited to the social elite of the country. The Communists, in their attempts to dispel the concept that education was only for the wealthy and to make the system more universally accessible, actively promoted the educational advancement of persons of worker-peasant origin. Ultimately, however, this policy was played down. In 1972 these students, at the secondary and higher educational levels, constituted a vastly smaller proportion of the total worker-peasant population than before. Also, in prewar education, the emphasis was on the humanities or liberal arts rather than technical or vocational specializations. Although the communist objective of reorienting the educational system toward the technical and vocational fields has been partially realized, there is still a great demand on the part of students, particularly in higher education, for courses in the humanities. Hungarian education, however, has undergone a rather sweeping transformation in other respects. In many cases, the regime has set objectives for the educational system that have proved to be-as yet-unattainable. In other cases, the system has fulfilled many of the early goals. A major objective of education was to produce the ideal Communist who would serve and promote the Hungarian state. This objective was to be achieved through the formal educational system, which includes Marxism-Leninism in the curriculum from kindergarten through the university, and through extracurricular activities that are both highly centralized and closely related to the party. Although it is difficult to speculate on the success of this objective, there can be little doubt that the system is so constructed as to maximize the possibility of its achievement (see ch. 9). Another objective of the Communists was to make education available to the entire population and to stress certain areas that were deemed important to the society. Although the base for such a plan existed in prewar Hungary-in terms of supposedly compulsory education at the elementary level, adult education, education for the handicapped, and so forth-the Communists have made the system more comprehensive. Enforcement of compulsory attendance in the general, or elementary, school has made education more universal. At the same time, vocational and polytechnical schools, which did exist in prewar Hungary, were greatly developed and emphasized by the communist system. This development was a response to the demands of the newly industrialized society for technical specialists, a need that barely existed in prewar, largely agrarian, Hungary. The communist system of education, however, like the prewar system, has had its share of difficulties. Major problems in recent years have been in the areas of secondary and higher education-areas that also experienced problems before the war. Although the number of both institutions and students has increased significantly on every level, the percentage of the population of school-age children attending institutions of secondary and higher education is still disproportionately low. At the university level the problem of shortage of places is acute. As a result many eager Hungarian secondary school graduates are either driven away from higher education altogether or forced to enroll in more accessible universities in foreign countries. History of Education in Hungary Hungarians have displayed a keen interest in education since the Middle Ages. The communist regime has actively encouraged this love of education while imposing new patterns and directions on the pre-communist system. Before 1949 elementary education was tuition free, but secondary and higher education were generally the exclusive domain of the middle and upper classes; students of worker and peasant background constituted only 3 to 4 percent of the student bodies at these levels. Exclusiveness reached an extreme point in the era of Miklos Horthy after World War I when the anti-Jewish laws of 1920 and 1928 restricted the number of Jewish students in universities and colleges. Hungarian schools were based primarily on the West European model, heavy emphasis being placed on a broad education and little value being attached to technical specialization, except in the case of such professions as law and medicine. The Roman Catholic Church was the dominant influence in the schools, and other Christian churches also played major roles. Of the church-dominated European school systems, Hungary's was considered to be the most deeply permeated with religious influence. Much of secondary and higher education was under Roman Catholic, Calvinist, Lutheran, and Unitarian sponsorship. One manifestation of this religious dominance was the administration of education, until the communist takeover, by the Ministry of Religion and Education. The literacy level just preceding the communist reforms of 1948 and 1949 was relatively high. Until the 1860s illiteracy had been virtually unchecked because elementary schools had been neglected. When elementary education became compulsory in 1868, however, this problem was slowly eradicated. By 1920, 86.6 percent of the population was literate; by 1930, 90.0 percent; by 1941, 94 percent; and by 1949, 95.3 percent. Goals of Communist Education The educational philosophy and ideals of the communist regime in Hungary have been articulated in various pronouncements surrounding major legislation on education. The major education acts were passed in 1949, 1954, and 1961, the first and last involving the most sweeping reforms. Generally, the goals expressed in these statements have been flexibly formulated and have been modified when they proved to be unattainable or unrealistic. The major objective of communist education is to produce citizens who will benefit Hungarian socialist society. This goal is to be achieved through a total communist education both within and outside the school framework. Such an education includes a complete comprehension of Marxism-Leninism, which permeates the curriculum at all levels of the school system, and a thorough understanding of the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party (MSZMP-see Glossary), which is encouraged by youth organizations functioning outside the formal educational process. Although this objective was defined from the outset, it was expressed most recently, in 1972, by Janos Kadar, first secretary of the MSZMP. He stated: "Of course, what would please me, as a Communist, would be for secondary schools and higher educational institutes to produce perfect Communists. Of course, this is impossible. It is a fair demand, however, that young people be taught a sense of duty to the people bent on socialist construction." The ideal of the perfect Communist-ideally based on the Soviet model-has been modified, through the process of adapting to the local situation, to produce the perfect Hungarian socialist citizen. In 1954 it was stated that Hungarian "national culture" and "patriotic education" were to be stressed. In 1972 this goal was still more liberally interpreted when it was conceded that it was acceptable to learn not only from other socialist countries but also from Western models. The second objective of communist education is to produce technical specialists who will meet the needs of the national economy. In 1949 the minister of education explicitly stated: "In the interest of promoting the success of the economic Five Year Plan, it is necessary to improve the economic and technical professional training on a high level; of training an adequate number of technicians, adjusted to the necessities of individual fields primarily of economic life, who are entirely familiar with the different specific trades and will be suited to fill leading positions." Thus, education played a part in the supply and demand process by selecting the necessary numbers of students and training them for specific functions in the economy. This objective, however, has also been modified, partly as a result of relative success in industrialization and partly because of the awareness of the qualitative shortcomings resulting from this policy. In 1972, at a conference of educators, one of the stated goals was the achievement of the proper balance between the arts and sciences. The third objective of the communist government was to raise the educational level of workers and peasants who had been deprived under the prewar regime. Like the other objectives, however, the goals of the policy had to be modified in order to conform to conditions. In 1949 Article 48 of the new constitution stated: "The Hungarian People's Republic shall ensure the right to education to every worker ... the Hungarian People's Republic shall implement the right by extending to all, educational facilities through a free and compulsory general school system, secondary and higher schools, educational facilities for adult workers, and financial aid to those receiving any kind of education." Although there was some degree of success in the achievement of this objective, there were also sufficient problems to warrant the gradual playing down of this theme. In 1954 the policy was modified slightly by conceding that, although the majority of students ought to be of working and peasant background, priority would be given to ability rather than to class origin. Finally, in 1963, the policy was virtually voided, and class background has been deemphasized in most policy statements since that time. The fourth objective of communist education-and the only one that has not required modification-was to integrate education with everyday life. Law III of 1961 set forth two major goals to be achieved through education: closing the gap between school and daily life by means of relating practical activities to production; and unifying the individual and the state by molding "conscious, educated, patriotic, upright and law-abiding citizens who will be faithful to the people, will cooperate in building socialism with useful work, (and who) will build and protect the peoples' state." Communist Reforms in Education Broad Reforms When the Communists took power in 1949, they began a series of broad reforms designed to eliminate certain features of precommunist education and to replace them with the means of meeting the new goals and objectives. Education for an eight-year period in coeducational schools was made compulsory in 1948. There was an overt attempt at this time to rid the school system of religious influences. Before World War II religion had been a compulsory subject in primary, secondary, and special schools. As early as 1947 religious instruction was no longer considered compulsory, and in 1949 it became, at least nominally, an elective subject. By 1948 denominational schools were nationalized, and church rights regarding school administration and textbook publication were curtailed. In the field of higher education, whereas there had been many religious-sponsored institutions in 1945, by 1954 there were none. On the primary and secondary levels, however, by the early 1950s certain agreements had been signed between the state and the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches that allowed some denominational schools to continue in existence. In the first two years of reform there was a strong attempt to sovietize the entire educational system. Russian-language study became compulsory from the upper levels of the general school through the university. Many Soviet professors taught at Hungarian universities, much of the work of Soviet authors was utilized as course material, and Russian clubs were established. In the late 1940s the Gorki Institute of Budapest and the Russian Institute of Budapest University were founded. This sovietization policy was later modified in favor of a more Hungarian orientation. The communist leaders in order to elevate the educational level of students of worker and peasant origin-particularly at the higher levels of education where they previously had been barred-radically altered the admissions policy on the secondary level in favor of students from worker-peasant backgrounds. Similarly, in higher education, social background became the chief criterion for admission. Students from worker-peasant families who had not completed secondary school were allowed to enroll in an intensified one-year course that made them eligible for admission to universities. By 1950 the entire school system had been nationalized. In the general schools, and other elementary schools remaining from the prewar era, a total of 639,335 pupils and some 18,000 teachers were under the aegis of the state. In higher education all universities and other institutions, which had been autonomous, were under state control. Marxism-Leninism had become the backbone of the curriculum by the early 1950s. A brief liberalization of this policy followed the death of Joseph Stalin but, seemingly as a response to the Revolution of 1956, a renewed effort to instill the spirit of Marxism in the schools had become evident by 1957. By 1961 all syllabi had been revised, new curricula had been implemented in elementary and secondary schools, and the teachings of Marx and Lenin had been incorporated into higher education. Vocational training was one of the major objectives of the School Reform Act of 1961 and was made part of every kind of school at every level. A new course called practical skills was instituted to teach students basic techniques, and a new form of secondary education, based on a precommunist model but more specialized in scope, was established to deal exclusively with vocational education. Before 1962 general or elementary school was free of charge, but secondary schools charged tuition fees. Pupils from worker-peasant families and exceptional students were generally eligible for scholarships. By 1963 all preschool, elementary, and secondary schools were tuition free. In addition, boarding schools, student homes, and study rooms were established to ease financial burdens, primarily those of children from rural communities. A decree by the minister of culture in 1963 stated that, in the field of higher education, students having high grades would be exempted from tuition fees. There were to be two forms of aid to students in higher education: benefits, such as room and board; and financial scholarships. Some 90 percent of higher education students received some form of assistance. Specific Institutional Reforms Whereas broad reforms were directed at eradicating past deficiencies as well as all noncommunist influences in the educational system, specific changes were instituted in the various branches of the school system in order to implement these reforms. In 1945 the general school was established as an eight-year elementary school for students from six to fourteen years of age, and all existing elementary schools became general schools. Secondary schools were reorganized into four-year institutions; some were academically oriented along the lines of the precommunist gymnasium, whereas others were technical or vocational. The vocational secondary school, a branch of the school system greatly expanded by the Communists, was designed to train workers in agriculture, industry, and commerce. In 1948 there were three new kinds of secondary schools: the secondary modern; the technical or vocational; and the teacher training school. The teacher training school remained at the secondary level until 1958, when it was absorbed into higher education. Reforms in higher education began in the early 1950s after all higher education had come under state control. By 1951 several polytechnical universities and colleges had been established. The trend toward specialization was accelerated by the founding of such new kinds of institutions as the Academy of Heavy Industry, the Academy of Transportation, and the Academy of Agricultural Engineering. Workers' schools, which had existed as part of adult education before 1945, were established as separate institutions on three levels. The first level was the workers' general school, which was open to all workers who had finished the regular general school. The second level led to a so-called workers' diploma and enabled the worker to enroll in a form of higher education. The third kind was the correspondence school, which operated on both the secondary and university levels. Reform Results During the first five years of the communist regime, the number of children in nursery schools and kindergartens rose by 20 percent, and the number of pupils in primary schools increased by 50 percent. Between 1945 and 1965 the number of classes in the general school doubled, the number of teachers increased by 2 1/2 times, and 98.8 percent of eligible children were attending elementary school. Of these students, 90 percent had completed their required courses within the usual period of time. Between 1949 and 1954 secondary school graduates increased by 73 percent. Although the figures are disputed, the number of schools rose from somewhere between 173 and 397 in academic year 1937/38 to some 400 in 1954; some scholars placed the precise figure for 1937/38 at 250. Similarly, the number of pupils grew from between 44,000 and 53,000 to 162,000 by 1954. The worker-peasant percentage of the student body in secondary education rose from a mere 8 percent in 1948 to 42 percent in 1949. This percentage later declined as the policy was gradually deemphasized. In higher education the number of institutions rose from sixteen in 1937 to forty-three in 1960. Students increased from 11,747 in 1937 to 44,585 in 1960. The worker peasant ratio in higher education reached a high of 66 percent in academic year 1949/50, but a number of these students failed to meet the curriculum requirements. This percentage, like the elementary-secondary percentage, later declined as there was a gradual return, dating from Stalin's death in 1953, to professional criteria rather than class origin as the main basis of admission. Administration and Financing Administration Before 1948 education had been under the administrative jurisdiction of the Ministry of Religion and Education, which was assisted in its functions by the National Council of Education. When the Communists took power, various aspects of education were placed under the tutelage of separate offices and ministries, and religious matters were placed under the authority of the State Office of Church Affairs. Formal education in 1949 was placed under the Ministry of Culture. By 1965 concern for education was so vast that the National Education Council was established as a consultative body to the Ministry of Culture and was very similar in function to the original National Council of Education, which had served the former Ministry of Religion and Education. The administration of education in Hungary is highly centralized. Public education is set up in a strictly uniform pattern, and all public educational institutions are controlled and maintained by the state. The single exception to this rule occurs in the case of church schools, although these too are assisted by the state and subject to its inspection. The final power of decision with regard to education rests with the main organs of the MSZMP. The Scientific and Public Education Section of the Central Committee of the party is the section most responsible for education. The principal governmental body dealing with education is the Ministry of Culture. Within the ministry there are subsections dealing with education at the kindergarten level, elementary education, secondary education, vocational education, teacher training, and higher education. The ministry establishes an educational program based on political principles and the needs of the economy. Although the Ministry of Culture is responsible in an overall sense for all branches of formal education, other ministries actually oversee the administration of schools that fall into their field of specialization. The various ministries responsible for industrial, agricultural, and commercial affairs oversee both secondary vocational schools and higher technical school. All medical training comes under the Ministry of Health; agricultural training falls under the Ministry of Agriculture and Food; and colleges for physical training come under the Hungarian Physical Training and Sports Council. Serving as an advisory body, the National Education Council establishes guidelines for both curricula and syllabi and evaluates the relative merits and deficiencies of the school system. Among the most important ancillary bodies dealing with primary and secondary education are the regional councils. Although their organizations are autonomous, they assist in planning in collaboration with central authorities. They also work at the local level with both teachers and parents and generally direct the work of the schools in their particular regions. The mass organizations are the last but not least important group dealing with the administration and functioning of the educational system. These are organizations, such as youth groups, trade unions, and parental work collectives, that strive to promote the development of the socialist school system. Financing Nearly all financial burdens for public education are borne by the state. Actually, the state allocates funds to cover 92.5 percent of the total cost of public education, parental contributions constitute 7.2 percent, and the remainder comes from individuals and industries who supply equipment or services to the schools. The cost of national education increased considerably from 1960 to 1970, although the percentage of the national income allocated to it remained relatively fixed. In 1960 education cost 5,872 million forints (for value of forint-see Glossary), which was 4 percent of the national income; in 1970 education cost 11,871 million forints, or 4.3 percent of the national income. In 1970 general schools absorbed the greatest portion of the total revenue-36.5 percent; followed by higher education-18.8 percent; secondary education-15.9 percent; apprentice training-12 percent; kindergartens-10 percent; student homes or boarding facilities-5.2 percent; and extension courses-1.6 percent. The Educational System Hungarian education has been described as "socialist in content and national and European in character," a blend of the modern and the traditional. Although it is a highly pragmatic form of education-the teaching of practical skills is an indispensable requirement of the system-it also instills in its students a sense of respect for the culture of Hungary and of Europe as well. There is a great interest in adult education and, as a result, roughly the same number of adults attend class as do young people of school age. The formal school system is complemented by study circles, literary societies, debating teams, sports circles, and other extracurricular, party-dominated organizations. Preschool Education The first kindergarten was founded in Budapest in 1828. At this time there was strong opposition to the establishment of preschool institutions. By 1873 there were only three private kindergartens. The first state kindergarten was founded in 1876. The first legislation regarding kindergartens was enacted in 1891; it required the establishment of kindergartens in communities in which forty or more three- to six-year-olds were unsupervised. There was little real growth in the field until the end of World War II. Schools were frequently over-crowded and understaffed, and the emphasis was on discipline and religion. When the schools were nationalized in 1948, there was a vast revision in the concept of kindergarten education. Children were to be educated in terms of the principles of socialist education, and preschool, especially in the kindergarten phase, was perceived to be built on three concepts of communist education-play, work, and learning. There are two forms of preschool in Hungary-nurseries and kindergartens. Nurseries, or creches, are for children from one month to three years of age. They function under the Ministry of Health and are maintained by such groups as people's councils, factories, enterprises, and cooperatives. The fee for this service is dependent on the income of the parents and the number of children in the family. Because of the ages of the children, nurseries are more in the nature of day-care centers than schools. Kindergartens are for children from three to six years of age and are the Hungarian child's first exposure to structured education. They operate under the Ministry of Culture and are maintained by local people's councils, state agencies, institutions, plants, cooperatives, social organizations, enterprises, and farms. There are six types of kindergartens: the half-day school, the full-day school, the seasonal day homes, the summer day homes, six-day kindergartens, and children's homes. The total number of kindergartens and kindergarten pupils, as well as the overall percentage of children actually attending kindergarten, has improved greatly over the past decade, but problems remain. The number of kindergartens had increased from school year 1960/61 to 1970/71, as had the number of pupils. Nevertheless, even though the percentage of kindergarten-age children attending school had risen, it was still quite low (see table 6). There are not enough kindergartens in the country to satisfy demand, and many children have been refused admittance because of the shortage of schools. The government has taken some steps to alleviate this problem; trade unions, enterprises, cooperatives, and other organizations have been requested to create more kindergartens to fill the gap. [See Table 6.: Number of Hungarian Schools and Pupils Attending, School Years 1961 and 1971] Elementary Education In 1777 the Ratio Educationis (Principles of Education) was passed under the rule of Queen Maria Theresa. This early decree attempted to regulate education and, like the communist system centuries later, articulated the concept that education was a state concern. After the Compromise of 1867, promulgated during the rule of King Francis Joseph I, the Fundamental Law of 1868 was passed, which regulated elementary education until World War II. Education was made compulsory for both boys and girls of six to twelve years of age. Later, compulsory education was extended to cover the three-year period of the so-called continuation schools. Under the Hungarian Council Republic of Bela Kun, who took power briefly in 1919, elementary education became an eight-year, rather than a six-year, process. Although this practice was not uniform throughout the country at that time, it became standardized in 1940 under Law XX. Until the Communists took power in 1948, however, compulsory education was not strictly enforced, especially in the rural areas. Similarly, coeducation, which was also part of prewar educational policy, existed only when separate classes for boys and girls were either too expensive or unsuitable. Under the law of 1940, after the fourth grade, pupils could either proceed to the higher grades of the elementary school or choose one of three other courses: upper elementary school (a separate level of education); vocational school; or the eight-year secondary school. The upper elementary school was based on a German and Austrian pattern known as the Burgerschule or citizen's school; these four-year institutions for boys or girls were established in large towns and cities in Hungary at the beginning of the twentieth century. In the 1937/38 school year, of 397 such schools, 160 were run by the state, 101 were communal, and the remainder were denominational. After the communist takeover the compulsory eight-grade general school was established, which provided a standardized elementary education throughout the country. The aim of the general school, according to party officials, was to lay the foundation "for developing the communist man." The student was to be instilled with respect for the working man, appreciation of communist morality, and desire to protect the socialist fatherland. There are two types of elementary education in Hungary: the general school, which is an eight-year school for children from six to fourteen years of age; and the continuation school, a two-year school for children between fourteen and sixteen (enrollment until sixteen years of age is compulsory) who are not planning to continue either academic or vocational secondary education. Unlike preschool education, there was a decline in the number of schools and pupils, as well as a slight percentage decrease in the number of elementary-age school pupils attending elementary school; but the overall percentage of school-age children attending elementary school throughout the country is high. Moreover, 91 percent of the corresponding age groups graduated from the general school. The number of persons in the employed population enrolled in elementary school courses in 1970/71 was 21,275, as compared with 116,670 in 1963/64. Problems still remain in the field of elementary education. There are still a number of so-called repeaters-pupils who lose one or more years of school-although the number had dropped radically in recent years. In 1952, 56.9 percent repeated; in the 1962/63 school year, 19 percent; and in 1970/71, 17.4 percent. This trend is especially prevalent in the first and fifth grades. There is a shortage of qualified teachers, so that specific subjects are often taught by teachers not trained in that field. In some schools, owing to shortages of classrooms, pupils of different grades sit together in the same class. The state acknowledges the problems and works toward solutions, but progress is slow. At the Fifth Congress of the Patriotic People's Front in 1972, the government declared that its goal was to have every school-age child complete all grades of the elementary school. Modernization of school equipment, introduction of new instructional methods, and establishment of more rural schools have been proposed as means to achieve desired goals.