$Unique_ID{COW00438} $Pretitle{266} $Title{Bolivia The Textile Traditions of Highland Bolivia} $Subtitle{} $Author{Laurie Adelson and Arthur Tracht} $Affiliation{Embassy of Bolivia, Washington DC} $Subject{textiles weaving woven pieces bands cloth bolivia called patterned stripes} $Date{1989} $Log{} Country: Bolivia Book: The Cultural Guide of Bolivia Author: Laurie Adelson and Arthur Tracht Affiliation: Embassy of Bolivia, Washington DC Date: 1989 The Textile Traditions of Highland Bolivia The textile tradition of high land Bolivia is a rich and highly developed art with roots reaching back to pre Colombian times. Yet this remarkable tradition has gone largely unrecognized outside of the Bolivian rural regions where weaving is still the most important form of creative expression. Originally, textile production arose out of the simple need for clothing. Gradually, complicated techniques and designs evolved and cloth became a significant social element in the lives of the Andean peoples. Today in Bolivia weaving is a well-respected, non-commercial art; in most regions cloth continues to play a major role in the lives of the Indians. All members of the family are involved in textile production. The simple indigenous loom and drop spindle are still used to produce a wide variety of weavings ranging from plain, utilitarian textiles for daily use, to highly sophisticated and refined pieces of extraordi ary quality for use in ceremonies and festivals. When not tending animals, farming, or doing other daily chores, most people are engaged in weaving-related activities. Although in some respects costume has changed over the years, the complex weaving techniques of the past are very much alive. Among the most beautifully woven and dyed textiles ever produced are the ceremonial weavings of the colonial and 19th century Aymara Indians of Bolivia. These textiles are a reflection of an extraordinary textile tradition that had flourished in the Lake Titicaca basin plateau since ancient times. While other social and cultural traditions declined rapidly after the Spanish Conquest (1532), Aymara weaving techniques, designs, colors, and forms remained essentially intact in Bolivia until the end of the 19th century. This fact is not surprising when one considers that throughout pre-Columbian times textiles were the most highly prized possession and the most sought-after trade commodity in the Andes. Because of the physical nature of cloth, textiles were probably more important in spreading culture than any other art form. They were more durable than ceramics, which were susceptible to breakage, and had the advantage of mobility-which architectural stoneworks lacked. Moreover, as clothing, textiles were highly visible. Although most Andean textiles were used as clothing, they were not merely utilitarian in purpose but also, and in many cases more significantly, played major political, social, and religious roles. In pre-Colombian times in the Andes, cloth was regarded as the most important gift. Used to establish and strengthen social and political relationships, it played an essential role in all important phases of the life cycle, as it still does in many parts of Bolivia today. Archaeological excavations of pre-Columbian tombs in Peru and Chile give an indication of the tremendous importance placed on cloth during ancient times. Many mummy bundles found in graves of the Paracas Necropolis (B.C. 600 - 200) on the southern Peruvian coast contained several hundred exquisitely made textiles. During Inca times (1430 - 1532 A.D.), large quantities of the finest textiles were woven specifically to be burned as ritual offerings-a tradition which continued for centuries even after the arrival of the Spaniards. The Spanish conquistadors were astonished at the vast amounts of cloth they found in the warehouses which the Incas maintained in all parts of their realm. Some chroniclers reported that upon retreating from battle, Inca soldiers sometimes left behind thousands of llamas and prisoners, and even gold and silver, but chose to burn entire warehouses filled with cloth rather than leave them for the Spaniards. In the "quipus", the stringknot recording system of the Incas, only people and camelids ranked above textiles, which were accounted even before food and ceramics. Even today, when acculturation has tremendously changed the Aymara life style, the traditional Andean reverence for cloth remains. Ceremonial pieces are still handed down from one generation to the next and are brought out only for important rituals. Consequently, the finest textiles have survived until today, whereas ordinary garments were worn daily until they became merely patches to repair other pieces. In one region of the southern Altiplano, local chieftains carry bundles called "q'epis" that are filled with old ceremonial weavings including tunics (ccahuas), ponchitos, mantles (llacotas), and ancient head-dresses (Pillus). The q'epi is kept on an altar with burning candles and offerings of coca leaves, alcohol, and pre-Columbian objects placed around it. The ccahuas are removed from the q'epi and worn by the chieftain a few times during the year and are the symbol of his status as temporal head of his community, or ayllu. At the end of each year, the q'epi is relinquished to a successor during a special ceremony. A tax document found in one of the bundles and dated 1826 attests to the antiquity of the textiles. In a sense, the contents of the q'epi pre-Columbian artifacts, textiles, documents form a historical archive of each ayllu. Most ceremonial weavings which have survived in Bolivia are matrimonial pieces or fine textiles used during rituals by chieftains or their wives. When these pieces are needed, they must be rented from someone else in the community if none are owned by the family. Textiles also play an integral role in the fertility ritual called "k'illpa", in which the ears of young animals are marked. The use of textiles in religious ceremonies has even carried over into Aymara Catholicism: on certain feast days the Indians carry from the church images of patron saints dressed in indigenous ceremonial garb. Recent years have brought many changes to Bolivia and modernization reaches even to remote highland areas. The influence of technology can already be seen as the rural people begin to wear machine-made rather than handmade clothes. Many aspects of the ancient art are already lost. Little natural dyeing is done and the skill of extremely fine spinning is preserved in only a few areas. Industrial wool and synthetics generally appear in modern textiles. Due to the breakdown of traditional values, the Indians themselves have forgotten much of the meaning that cloth once had. The Development of Weaving and Dress The heddle loom and other weaving implements used by present-day Bolivian weavers were developed by their ancestors over 3000 years ago. Most of the weaving techniques which were eventually to be used all over Peru and Bolivia had already appeared by the first century A.D. The few pre-Columbian highland textiles that have survived indicate that a rich and impressive weaving tradition was already flourishing in the mountains well over a thousand years ago. By the time the Spaniards arrived in the 16th century, both coastal and highland weaving were at such a high point that the conquistadors were astounded by the richness and beauty of Incan clothing. The influence of the Spaniards on weaving and costume soon began to show. Sheep, brought from Europe, provided wool as a new fiber and the treadle loom was introduced. Certain aspects of Spanish dress, such as pants and European-style hats, were adopted by the Indians in addition, the Spanish soon began to regulate native dress. In 1780, the Aymaras of Bolivia (then Alto Peru) and the Quechuas under Tupac Amaru, led a strong insurrection against the colonial government. The Indians were defeated but the government decided that in order to prevent further uprisings they must erase all signs of differentiation between the natives and the colonialists. The Indians were therefore prohibited from wearing their regional clothes and were ordered to adopt the costume of the Spanish peasant. In the highlands and less accessible regions, the Indians were able to preserve their customs to a certain extent. The remoteness of many weaving communities has enabled Bolivians to maintain a tradition of high quality warp-patterned weaving. While Spanish elements still make up a major part of the Bolivian Indians' clothing, indigenous garments are worn along with them to form a costume that is distinctly Andean. CLOTH Fibers Before the arrival of the Spaniards camelids (alpaca, llama and vicuna) were the primary sources for weaving materials in Bolivia. Alpaca was the preferred fiber and it is still highly valued. When finely spun and woven, it yields a shiny, silky fabric. Llama hair is coarser and stronger than alpaca and is therefore generally chosen for utilitarian textiles such as "costales" (storage sacks). The rarest and most highly prized fiber comes from the wild vicuna. In Incan times only the Inca himself could bestow the right to wear vicuna. Since the Spanish conquest, indiscriminate killing of the animal has caused it to become an endangered species so that vicuna hunting is now prohibited. Sheep's wool, introduced by the Spaniards, is now the most available and commonly used material although it yields a rather rough fabric unless much care is taken in shearing and sorting the wool. By selecting fibers from different parts of the animal's body, various qualities of yarn may be spun. Cotton is native to South America but it is not often used in the highlands. It is rarely handspun and its use is limited to certain regions and to particular types of weavings. In Tarabuco, for example, it is woven along with wool, but only in the patterned areas of the pieces. Obviously, in the cold climates of Bolivia, warmer materials are preferred. Recently, weavers have begun using machine-spun yarns, both natural and synthetic. These industrial yarns simplify the weaving process in as much as the initial spinning and dyeing are already done. Furthermore, there is a great deal of prestige in being able to purchase industrial products. Spinning Bolivian spinners have produced some of the most finely spun sheep and camelid yarns in the world using only a simple drop spindle. The wool goes through three spinning processes. It is initially spun on a small spindle to obtain a single strand from the raw wool. Next, a larger spindle is used to make a two-ply yarn. After dyeing, the yarn is given a third spinning to produce a crepe twist, a spin so tight that the yarn, when not under tension, twists back on itself. This "over-spin" is an important feature of Bolivian yarns, giving it great strength, elasticity, and a hard, smooth surface. These qualities aid the weaver and the result is a fine, yet durable fabric. Bolivians sometimes make deliberate use of 'S' and 'Z' twisted (clockwise and counterclockwise) yarns in their fabrics. Often, in a predominantly 'S' twisted fabric, one finds stripes or single warp threads of alternating 'S' and 'Z' twisted yarns. 'Z' twisted threads are called "lloq'e" and are said to bring good luck and ward off evil. Not only do they add a lovely subtle effect to the weavings, but also, when near the edges of fabrics, they help prevent the corners from curling. Color One of the greatest achievements of the Aymara peoples was the development of a complex dye technology, the result of thousands of years of experimentation. The Aymara were skilled dyers who were able to produce an extraordinary array of colors, bright as well as subdued. The brilliant colors of most colonial and 19th century pieces found today have neither faded nor bled, a testimony to the exceptional abilities of Andean dyers. Unfortunately, the art of natural dyeing has been lost and the few efforts which have been made to revive it in the Andes have not succeeded in discovering the secrets which produced such depth and evenness of color. In addition, there is a great lack of research in this area resulting in scanty information about the dyes themselves. Today natural dye weavings are usually called "makknu", a word that originally referred to the popular and widespread dye, cochineal. Cochineal, a parasite which lives on the cacti opuntia and Nopalea, produces a vast range of reds and purples, depending on the mordant and the amount of dye used. Due to its great versatility and the depth of colors it produces, cochineal is one of the most commonly found dyes in the pre-Columbian, colonial, and 19th century textiles of the Aymara. Two other sources of reds were "chapichapi" (R. microphyllum) and "airampu" (Opuntia soehrensii). Indigo (anil) was used for blues. A whole range of other colors were produced although little is known of the dyestuffs employed. Bertonio, in his 17th-century dictionary of the Aymara language, gives the Aymara names for many dyes, including "makknu", which he calls "a cake made of herbs which dyes wools red". The great skill of the Aymara women at blending and composing colors is attested to in their weavings. Color was an essential element in the beauty of any textile, and this beauty depended on the individual weaver's ability to arrange the warp yarns pleasingly on her loom. Different color placement made a stripe or patterns vibrate or recede depending on the weaver's sensibility. The effect of certain juxtapositions created a bold cloth with much contrast or a subdued piece with gradual color variations. Occasionally the dye process itself was utilized to create patterning such as in the rare "ikat", banded ponchos. Color, however, had symbolic as well as aesthetic significance. In many old pieces, particularly the llacotas, rectangular cloths, a yellow stripe appears near each weft selvedge. While the meaning of these yellow stripes is not yet known, they are too pervasive to be called random. Recent anthropological studies indicate that certain colors represent vertical land ownership and even the specific crops which grow at each altitude. Weaving Girls usually begin learning to weave before puberty. Most indigenous textiles are woven by women on the traditional heddle loom. The loom is set up outside the house and may be positioned either horizontally, with the loom bars lashed to stakes in the ground, or obliquely (leaning against a wall), with the loom bars tied to two perpendicular poles. A backstrap loom is also sometimes used. Most weaving occurs during the winter season, after the harvest and before the next year's planting. The women spend many of their daylight hours at the loom, simultaneously attending to the children and other daily chores. A complex piece with a large patterned area may take several months to complete. Because of the time involved in weaving, these fabrics are made to last many years. An important feature of indigenous Bolivian textiles is that they have four selvedges. This is accomplished by using a continuous warp which is woven entirely from one end to the other. Since these textiles are warp patterned, the basic layout is determined during the warping process. In the areas where patterning is desired, two or more colors are warped together so that the weaver may "pick up" the color she needs to create the designs. The second color falls to the other side, resulting in a totally reversible cloth. The design motifs are identical on both sides; only the colors change. In a few regions, long supplementary warp floats are used producing pieces which have design only on one side. Techniques and embellishments vary considerably according to the tradition of each region. Different structures are achieved, depending on how the loom is warped and the way in which the weft threads are inserted during weaving. A resist dye technique called "watado" (ikat) may also be used for patterning. The edges of fabrics are often protected with a woven tubing called "ribete". Certain pieces are adorned with tassels or beading depending on local custom. Yardage, called "bayeta", is woven in most regions on a European-style treadle loom. Usually woven by men, "bayeta" is then tailored into garments such as shirts, pants and dresses. In certain regions men weave very bright plaids for their vests, jackets and sashes. A balanced plain weave is commonly used but occasionally twills may be woven. In the central highlands men make belts for their wives or girlfriends on a lap loom called a "canar". A type of weft wrapping is employed with thick warp threads resulting in a stiff but durable belt. Design The Bolivian Indians' propensity for using stripes in textile design is not arbitrary but rather based on two significant factors: weaving structure and ancient traditions. Because these textiles are warp-faced, the color composition of the cloth is determined by the layout of the warps when the loom is prepared for weaving. Generally speaking, stripes are inherent in the structure of warp-faced weaving. Unless a piece is completely patterned or completely plain, there will of necessity be stripes. Since the Bolivians were master dyers, most of their textiles incorporate many wide and narrow stripes and patterned bands of various colors. In pre-Colombian and colonial pieces, monochrome stripes predominated, later, patterned bands became more and more popular. One concept of design composition, which is found in some pre-Colombian textiles and later became a classic layout for Bolivian Aymara weavings, is based on groupings of three. In ponchos, the most common setup is three groups of plain or patterned stripes on each side of the piece. "Awayos" (mantles) usually have only three striped or patterned areas-one in the middle and one at each outer weft selvedge. This awayo layout follows through on many "ch'uspas", coca bags. Whether this composition is simply an adherence to tradition, a natural balanced result of the warp-faced structure, or a meaningful, symbolic representation is unknown, though is obviously an important layout. A recent study of Bolivian textiles indicates that the disposition and number of stripes are symbolic representations of the Bolivian's social and physical world. While design composition was ruled somewhat by technique and tradition, there was ample room for individual artistic expression. In the best striped pieces there is a profound sense of proportion in the placement, width, and spacing of the bands. The possibilities of color choice and juxtaposition were vast and there was a whole repertoire of local design motifs from which to select. However, since the symbols were obviously important and meaningful, they may have often been chosen more for their significance than for aesthetics. It is known that textiles have been used as visual communicators for spreading religion in the Andes for thousands of years. Images of deities appear on textiles as far back as B.C. 500. This tradition carried through on colonial and 19th century pieces where masked dancers and mythological figures are sometimes represented. It is likely then that religious ideas may also have been expressed through the abstract symbols so common in Bolivian textiles. Although most Bolivian motifs can be traced to pre-Colombian coastal cultures, many probably originated in the Andean highlands and were later used by coastal peoples. Eventually Spanish designs also influenced Bolivian weaving. Certain motifs, such as the horse, are clearly of European origin while in other cases indigenous designs were simply altered stylistically, giving them a fancy, floral appearance. Unfortunately, little is known about the original names and meanings of the ancient symbols. Present-day informants often give conflicting information regarding them, perhaps because they are reluctant to reveal an important part of their culture to outsiders, or perhaps because the meanings have been changed over the centuries and now differ from region to region. In any case, the patterns on Bolivian textiles are not merely decorative, but represent religious, social and cultural ideas, symbolizing concepts relating to family lineages and/or land distribution. REGIONS Bolivian weavings vary greatly from region to region in style, technique and use. The areas described here represent some of the important weaving centers of Bolivia. The names usually refer to small central villages although most weaving occurs in the surrounding rural areas. Calcha Fine wool spinning is the mark of the textiles from the area around Calcha in southern Potosi. Calchenas are still the best spinners in Bolivia and continue to produce weavings of high quality. Generally their weavings have little patterned area, but what design there is stands out strikingly due to the fine threads and forceful beating of the weft. For example, the "aksus", overskirts, are entirely black except for two intricately patterned bands, one near each weft selvedge. On these ends one finds the finest warp threads, sometimes over 170 per inch. Though camelid fibers are rarely used the fabrics often have the shiny appearance of alpaca due to the dim tightly over spun threads. Calcheno ponchos are especially handsome and several of them can usually be found in every house. The "Panti" is worn daily, its color varying from dark maroon to wine; it is patterned with stripes and tiny design bands of complementary warp weave. The "luto", or mourning poncho, is always black with few decorative bands. Lastly, the "Boliviano" is woven in very bright stripes and worn mostly for fiestas. Bands called "watado" (ikat) are frequently used on all three types of ponchos. Women wear full "Almillias", dresses fashioned from homespun cloth, which are embroidered and sequined on the large open sleeves. Very fine narrow belts up to five meters long encircle the waist many times, giving the appearance of a wide belt. The "aksu", the patterned overskirt, is fastened at the shoulders by a "topo", which is a pin of Bolivian spoons or coins. A woven mantle, or "liclla", is worn around the shoulders as well as an embroidered shawl, or "Waita". Potolo The textiles woven in the region generally referred to as Potolo are among the most graphically expressive weavings of Bolivia. Characterized by numerous birds and animals, these textiles reflect the lyrical nature of the Quechua-speaking people of Potolo. On the textiles one finds fantastic creatures such as winged, four-legged figures, headless or multi-headed animals, and even birds wearing human clothes. Many animals have comical or mischievous expressions on their faces. Frequently one figure is woven inside another as if it has been eaten or as if the animal has a young in its belly. Scenes from nature may be portrayed, such as a bird catching a small animal. Humans sometimes appear, but it is interesting to note that plants, so prevalent in other regional textiles, are rarely depicted in Potolo. On the other hand, Inti, the sun, is a popular motif. Unlike other areas where decorative designs are usually woven in bands, the figures on Potolo weavings may occur in seemingly random patterns, entirely covering a piece. Spatial relationships are free form. Figures can be arranged upside down or sideways and may vary in size from very large ones which cover almost half the width of the piece to tiny creatures the size of a thumbnail. The women's asku usually contains the best array of figures. When learning to weave, girls make little practice pieces called "sakas" on which they try weaving different motifs to learn how to form figures. When an experienced weaver actually makes a piece, there is no drawing to help her form the myriad of figures. Potolenos wear clothes typical of the Quechuas, but some of their traditional pieces are unique to the area. The men, until recently, wore large festival ponchos called "capotes" (cape or mantle). Four detailed bands decorate these ponchos which are fringed with long yarns that swirl when the men dance. The costume is augmented by a tiny festival "ch'uspa" adorned with fancy tassels up to a half meter long. Tarabuco Tarabucan costume reflects the strong influence of Spanish tradition on native Bolivian dress. Both men and women wear hard leather hats called "monteras" styled after the helmets of the conquistadors. The women sometimes wear a boat shaped hat of European influence covered with ric-rac and sequins. The most widely used zoomorphic motifs found on their textiles is the horse, an animal of European origin, although it is commonly found side by side with the indigenous llama. Tarabucans also strongly adhere to the Catholic custom of wearing bhack clothes, called "luto", for periods of mourning. This dress is identical in layout and motif to the everyday red colored garments except that it is predominantly black. The costume of the region is highly stylized and recognizable as distinctly Tarabucan. Characteristic of men's dress is the tiny poncho called "konga unku", which is worn around the shoulders over the main poncho, and the "ahuasa uncu", a square cloth worn around the waist. For festivals a "pallai unku" with elaborate designs is worn over the outer poncho. No man is found without his ch'uspa' (coca bag), which is found either hanging from his wide leather belt or dangling from his shoulder. The white homespun "corte" pants are especially wide and fall just below the knee. Completing the costume is a black and blue embroidered shirt with a zigzag motif. Tarabucan women wear a highly patterned overskirt called an "axu", a simple striped mantle, "lliclla" and an embroidered, homespun dress, called an "almilla". Sicasica Of all the Aymara regions where natural dye, 19th century and earlier textiles were found, the Sicasica area has the most prolific, abundant, and varied textile material. They rank with the most beautifully woven and dyed textiles ever produced in Bolivia. Among the finest and oldest pieces are the one piece ponchitos. The central ground is usually brown or purple, or occasionally black or pink. A pink or red section with three contrasting stripes occurs near each weft selvedge. Especially lovely are the large ponchos made from two rectangular pieces of cloth sewn together with a slot left for the neck. Often a separate woven strip was placed down the center of the poncho and a woven design border ornamented the perimeter of the piece. A women multicolored fringe was then sewn to that border. The traditional layout of six patterned bands with colored stripes was maintained from pre-Columbian times. Small ponchitos made in two pieces reflect the construction of the larger ponchos. The most frequently occuring patterns in these garments are wavy, narrow bands which enclose the stripes in the design areas. These ponchos have either pink and red or black grounds with multicolored stripes. Unique to the woman's costume is the pleated or gathered full skirt "urku". These pieces have wide stripes with only one patterned band. Red, white and purple predominate on a black ground. Completing the woman's costume is the "Awayo", SicaSica mantles have extremely elaborate design bands, some containing up to 30 patterned stripes. The predominant motifs are birds and stylized medallions. The ground colors are usually purple, black or pink, and some even have two color grounds. They are made from high quality alpaca and are extremely finely woven. Also exceptional in the region are ceremonial ground cloths called "incunas". Sicasica Incunas are characterized by various monochrome bands sometimes interrupted by design bands. Accessory textiles such as wide belts, and coca bags demonstrate the same expertise in spinning, weaving and dyeing. Charazani Textiles play significant social and cultural roles in the lives of the Charazani Indians. Consequently, symbolism and the use of color are important and meaningful factors in their weaving. The decorative motifs used in Charazani represent various aspects of the environment and the lives of the people. Zoomorphic figures are extremely diverse and anthropomorphic images describe important social events. Occasionally simple decorative, geometric motifs have special correlations to nature. For example, a certain diamond motif depicts the ancient deity, Inti, the sun. The profuse symbolism that developed in Charazani was indoubtedly heavily influenced by the "callahuayas", the famous medicine men of the area. The influence of the callahuayas is reflected in the scroll motif frequently employed by local weavers. Commonly regarded as a symbol of agricultural fertility this design is a stylization of the "churu", a type of land snail. The symbol, however, is also associated with the magic and power of the callahuayas. One of its forms, the "wajra pallay", is worn only on the garments of the most experienced practitioners. The way color is used in the weavings is significant. "Llicllas" are woven with design bands interspersed with monochrome stripes of plain weave. The colors of these stripes represent the levels of land of each community. For example, lower valleys, where corn and wheat are found are represented by green stripes; red signifies the higher fields of potatoes and barley. The pastural areas even higher are shown by maroon bands. Through these color bands and the predominating design motifs, the origin of a piece may be determined. One unique aspect of the callahualla man's costume are his multi-figured "alforjas", or medicine bags; characteristic of the woman's costume is the "Wincha", a head band woven in intricate designs and bordered with glass beads. Pacajes One of the most important and powerful of the pre-Spanish Aymara states was the "Senorio of Paxasas", now Pacajes. It was especially valued by the Incas for its large reserves of alpacas which supported its long and exceptional weaving tradition. Although present-day Pacajes textiles are quite ordinary, 19th century weaving of the area was of extraordinary quality. Special alpaca ponchos, "challapatas", were worn only by the chieftains. They have a silky sheen and drape elegantly over the shoulders. The black ground is interrupted by striped areas. Rarely are design motifs used. A striking effect on the poncho is achieved by the subtle use of natural dyes in the stripes. Cochineal was a favorite dye, producing colors ranging from pale pink to deep carmine. The "hilacata", (chieftain), wears an elaborate costume, over his shoulders he wears a small ponchito while a large challapata is folded lengthwise over one shoulder. The two ends of the challapata are pulled across the front and back of the body and tied on the side. A vicuna scarf encircles the neck and crosses in the back. Completing the costume is a highly decorative ch'uspa, a wood and silver "baston de mando", (staff of office), and a "chicote" (braided rope whip). The women once dressed in equally fine garments. Their llicllas, also of alpaca, have a black or brown ground and narrow designs in the same natural dye colors as the ponchos. The urku, (skirt), is quite full and made of shiny black alpaca. A wide, colorfully patterned belt stands out against the darker clothes. Calamarca Because Calamarca is not far from La Paz, the contemporary daily dress of the region is modern, but during many of the annual indigenous ceremonies, heirloom textiles handed down from past generations are still used. Most impressive are the wide belts of warp patterned double cloth figures of birds, cows, human forms, and plants. Frequently the Puerta del Sol, (Gateway of the Sun), from the Tiwanaku ruins south of Lake Titicaca is depicted on the belts. Sometimes the figures are quite large and bold and other times they are very tiny, appearing to float on the ample plain ground. Among the finest weaving done in the Calamarca region are narrow bands which display miniature versions of the figures on the belts. These bands, called "tesnus", are attached to the end of the belts to hold them in place. Symbolizing the stature of the "Mallku" (chieftain) is a natural dye ponchito with bands of zoomorphic ornithomorphic motifs, a vicuna scarf, and "wichiwichis", pompoms which hang from the waist and swing out from the body when the "Mallku" dances. A hat, felted from vicuna fibers, completes the costume. The wife of the mallku, the "Talla Mama", is an equally impressive figure. Her urku, a very full pleated skirt, is patterned with a number of decorative bands running horizontally across a black ground. A wide belt, similar to that of the mallku's, holds the urku securely in place as the woman dances, over her shoulders she wears a number of awayos, with the traditional designs of the area. One special piece is the "iscayo", a wide banded mantle in natural dyes. Lastly, the sleevelets, called of the Talla Mama are adorned with "mangetas". Challa Situated in the central Cordillera on the road halfway between Oruro and Cochabamba is the town of Challa. This weaving area shares many textile traditions with Bolivar and other areas of southern Cochabamba and northern Potosi. Especially noteworthy are the matrimonial aksus, lliclass and the large matrimonial blue ground ponchos with pattern bands of bird motifs. Also outstanding are the wide condor belts which may date to the turn of the century and the extremely fine belt ties, "tesnus", which are woven in myriad of motifs in wool, cotton and synthetic yarns. Northern Potosi The jutting northern limb of the department of Potosi is referred to, when refering to weavings, as Northern Potosi. This rich textile region is typified by the weaving of Pocoata, Llallagua, Sacaca, and Bolivar. Traditional weaving is maintained there more than in any other part of Bolivia. The textiles are so prolific and vital that they are the most commerced in Bolivia. They are commonly found in the market place in La Paz. The woman's lliclla, which features a multitude of animal, floral and even modern day motifs (trucks, cars, trains) woven in pebble weave, is prevalent. At festivals the women display their wealth by hanging many llicllas and silver pieces from their carrying cloth. The patterned bands are usually set off on large fields of black or brown, but many other bright colors may also be used. The aksus are woven in the same colors and patterns but in the typical aksu layout. Even more numerous than the mantles are the finely woven double cloth belts. During the ritual fights, "tinkus", which take place several times a year, men wear as many as 10 belts criss-crossing their chests and wrapped around their fists. These belts display the entire range of zoomorphic, anthropomorphic, and geometric motifs typical of this area. Men's ponchos are usually simple striped garments with a dark ground color. Bolivar The people of the region of Bolivar have maintained a long and unbroken tradition of weaving excellence. Until recently they strongly adhered to the Aymara custom of preserving and using old textiles. Consequently a remarkable number of matrimonial and ceremonial pieces have survived from as far back as the early 19th century. The oldest of these ceremonial pieces reveal the women's exceptional skill in natural dyeing. The large matrimonial aksus display impressive compositions of design bands interspersed with monochrome lines. Depicted on the aksu is usually the "lymi linku" or "lymi tika", undulating floral or serpentine motifs. The bride wears her aksu hanging from a woven matrimonial belt and around her shoulders she fastens a matrimonial lliclla of the same style. On the shoulders of the groom rests a plain mottled rectangular cloth called a llacota. Ceremonial ponchitos and ch'uspas were also woven during this earlier period to be worn by local chieftains during councils. The ponchitos are small and decorative, usually with pink or indigo blue grounds. A distinct change in weaving designs and technique occurred in the Bolivar region some time after the turn of the century. Instead of the narrow lines of traditional Aymara motifs, which characterized the previous period, bold representations of condors, "Intis", (suns), and other animals were woven. These pieces, called "kurti", were also woven for ceremonial use but contain bright aniline dyes. The patterned areas are woven in wide bands of double cloth. Lique The lique region is virtually the last Aymara speaking region in which traditional dress is still worn. The few remaining natural dye textiles, for the most part "Awayos", exhibit a multitude of typically Aymara figures woven in double cloth bands. The iconography mainly of zoomorphic or geometric medallions, is reminiscent of those seen on old textiles from Challa just south of Lique. Modern Lique weavings are characterized by impressive figurative motifs, although the cloth itself is relatively crude when compared with other Bolivian pieces. Most noteworthy of the present day textiles are the wide belts, "huakas", which show large stylized mythological figures in bright colors of red, yellow and black. These same bold figures are repeated on fine, narrow belt ties, "tesnus", and on the women's awayos. Macha One of the most distinctive weaving areas of the northern Potosi region is Macha. The Macha weaving style is based on the use of large and small geometric motifs, usually involving a network of diamond patterns. These diamond patterns can be found on all the textile forms except the man's poncho which is usually striped. Some older pieces may feature rhomboid networks instead of diamonds. Macha textiles can be finely spun and woven even though they are made from sheep's wool. A few older pieces are made from alpaca. In the contemporary pieces aniline dyes are used but in subdued, subtle shades of rust, amber blue and purple on a black or brown ground. Some portions of this text were excerpted from the following book: Aymara Weavings: Ceremonial Textiles of Colonial and 19th century Bolivia. Laurie Adelson and Arthur Tracht, Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service, Washington 1983. Weaving Traditions of Highland Bolivia, Laurie Adelson, and Bruce Takami, Craft & Folk Art Museum, Los Angeles, 1978.