$Unique_ID{COW00385} $Pretitle{235A} $Title{Bhutan Chapter 3. The People} $Subtitle{} $Author{George L. Harris} $Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army} $Subject{bhote bhutanese land dzong bhutan small india country power trade} $Date{1973} $Log{} Country: Bhutan Book: Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, An Area Study: Bhutan Author: George L. Harris Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army Date: 1973 Chapter 3. The People The ethnic composition of the population is uncertain. It probably includes, besides the Bhote majority and a large number of Nepalese, a few Indians of various castes and at least two tribal groups, the Lepcha, an indigenous people, and the Santal, whose forebears migrated from the northern part of India's Bihar State. Because much of the northern area is uninhabitable, the population is distributed mainly along the country's southern border and in the high valleys to the north, particularly those near the western end of the east-west lateral route (see fig. 22). In the broad mountainous region the Bhote are predominant, where as the southern strip contains an ethnically mixed population, among whom Nepalese settlers predominate. At least two-thirds of the population speaks one or another of a variety of Tibetan dialects, among which there is presumably a high degree of mutual intelligibility. The written language is identical with Tibetan. One of the most widely spoken dialects-probably Den-jong-ke-is Bhutan's language of administration and education. The only minority languages of much importance are Nepali, spoken by the Nepalese settlers, and Bengali and Hindi near the Indian border. The use of Rong-ke is confined to the Lepcha, and the Munda tongue of the Santal is rarely heard. To what extent the native speakers of any of these tongues are able to use any of the Tibetan dialects in their limited contacts with the Bhote is not known. A number of educated Bhote have a good knowledge of Hindi or English, both of which are taught in the schools. The various Bhote communities within Bhutan appear to comprise a relatively homogeneous group, generally similar in physical type and sharing a common heritage of culture, language and religion. They do not differ greatly from related groups within and outside the country, although minor variations in material culture and appearance distinguish those of the eastern and western parts of the country; the former have their closest affinities with the Bhote Monpa and Sherdukpen of the North East Frontier Agency, the latter with Bhote in the Chumbi Valley of Tibet and Sikkim. The Nepalese minority is made up largely of Rai, Gurung and Limbu; some are members of strongly Indian-influenced groups, such as the Dhimal and Tharu (Mechi subgroup), and there are probably also small numbers of Pahari of the Brahman and Chetri castes. There is little or no assimilation of this group by the Bhote. Further Nepalese immigration has been prohibited since 1959; since then those already settled in Bhutan, although given citizenship, have been forbidden to move from the southern frontier area, where land has become extremely scarce, to points farther north, a policy which they bitterly resent. The communities of Bhote agriculturalists in the central mountain region usually consist of a number of small hamlets and isolated homesteads. Individual settlements are separated from one another by formidable barriers of terrain, and journeys between them are always arduous and sometimes dangerous. The distances can be covered only on foot or with pack animals on the steep, rocky trails, which are usually narrow. In the ethnically mixed region along the southern border, places of settlement are considerably more accessible to one another. The Nepalese live in communities that are more clustered and compact than those of the Bhote, and their homes are usually of less substantial construction than the whitewashed masonry and solid wooden structures typical farther north. Regardless of their ethnic origins, virtually all Bhutanese are patrilineally organized and, as in Sikkim, frequently found in extended family households, although the nuclear family (a man, his wife and their children) is the most common form. Among the Bhote, monogamy is the prevalent form of marriage. Formerly, polyandry and more rarely polygyny were also found, but the Maharaja has recently forbidden polyandry and restricted the number of wives in polygynous marriages to a maximum of three. A man must now obtain the permission of his first wife in order to take additional wives; if she is unwilling to accept co-wives, she is free to seek a divorce and obtain separate maintenance or alimony from the husband. Bhote marriage arrangements include both bride service and bride-price. Since bride service must be rendered by the man to his father-in-law, he normally moves into his wife's household for a period before establishing his own independent household. Occasionally, the young couple may live separately in their own household, the man going daily to work in his father-in-law's fields. The bride-price (usually large) and a dowry are exchanged later, usually after the couple has been living together for about a year. Religion Approximately 75 percent of the population, including all the Bhote, are Buddhists. The remainder, made up principally of Nepalese and a few Indians, are Hindus, who may be presumed to have retained the popular beliefs and practices of their caste or ethnic group in the area from which they trace their origins. Buddhism, a dominant force in the national life, is the state religion. Religious as well as secular authority is vested in the maharaja, and the clergy exercises a powerful influence on national affairs. A lessening of the power of the monasteries is almost inextricably bound up with the modernization process, a circumstance which has caused some alarm among the lamas. However, the pace of change has not been rapid enough as yet to bring the clergy into serious conflict with the forward-looking elite. There are said to be eight major monasteries (which are also dzong) and nearly 200 minor small shrines (gompa) scattered throughout the country. Some of the large monasteries, Tashi Chho Dzong at Thimbu for instance, reportedly are used exclusively as lamaseries and may house several hundred priests; the small shrines are used for worship by lamas and lay persons living in the surrounding area. The monks and clerics of Bhutan-numbering 4,000 to 5,000-belong to the Drukpa branch of the Kagyutpa, one of the so-called "Red Hat" orders of Tibetan Buddhism. In education they range from the many illiterates to the few who are highly learned men. The popular attitude toward the clergy is one of respect. Contributions toward their support are freely given, not only because almsgiving is one of the most important means of gaining merit, but also because the services of the lamas are regarded as essential in important life-cycle ceremonies, particularly in reciting scriptural text (sutras) at weddings and conducting funeral rites. The lamas also perform important subsidiary activities such as treating certain types of illnesses, presiding at private religious services, casting horoscopes, teaching the doctrine to those requesting it and performing in the masked dances which correspond to the morality plays of medieval Europe. Elements of shamanism in the Tibetan form of Bon have become deeply bound up with popular Buddhism as it is practiced in Bhutan. Although the villager usually sees no conflict between formal Buddhist doctrine and practice and retained folk belief, in recent years some of the Buddhist clergy have begun to denounce shamanistic practices particularly witchcraft, as being essentially alien to Buddhism. Traditionally, the dzong have been the centers of artistic and intellectual life and their construction, ornamentation and upkeep have absorbed much of the nation's wealth. High, whitewashed walls are made of earth and stone, windows are deep and richly ornamented, and the sometimes gold-plated pagoda-like roofs are adorned at the corners with dragons' heads. The walls inside are usually covered with murals depicting episodes of Buddhist mythology and miniatures painted in gold on a black background. The style in which they are done resembles that of eastern Tibet. Inside repositories contain copies of the Tibetan scriptures printed from handcarved wooden plates on locally made paper. The Bhutanese villagers congregate at the dzong for the major festivals of Tibetan Buddhism and for seasonal agricultural feasts, such as the winter harvest celebration which occurs about the time of the winter solstice and marks the close of the agricultural year. In the seasonal feasts Buddhism appears to play little part, and participating lamas do so in their role as cultivators or as archers, for archery is a highly popular sport closely associated with all celebrations, whether religious or secular. The Society Traditionally Bhutanese society was arranged in a fairly rigid hierarchical structure consisting of three basic groups of persons-the nobility, peasantry and slaves. In a special relationship to them was still another hierarchy based on theological training and religious function, the Buddhist clergy, whose members collectively enjoyed high standing in the society whether or not they were of noble birth. Until early in the twentieth century there were two heads of state whose preeminent position was recognized by most Bhutanese-the Deb Raja, or temporal head of state, and the Dharma Raja, or spiritual head. The nobility, although apparently not differing greatly in its way of life from the remainder of the population, was set apart by its exclusive access to the nation's limited resources and political power. The Deb Raja, the penlops (ruling provincial chiefs) and probably most of their subordinate administrators were members of a small landowning nobility. Nearly all the peasants, who formed by far the largest segment of the population, were tenant farmers living on the semifeudal estates of the nobility. Although their time was spent mainly in working the fields and tending the herds, they appear to have been called up to serve as warriors when fighting broke out between the provincial chiefs. The few remaining persons were slaves, most of them descended from persons captured in Bhote raids on Indian territory during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In the traditional social order the Buddhist clergy no doubt offered the best path to higher status and prestige and, in time of internecine warfare, the armies of the penlops may have provided similar opportunities. Individual slaves were probably freed occasionally by their owners, and certain commoners may have been given special marks of favor in return for exceptional services rendered to the rulers. For most, however, the situation was static. This long-standing order persisted until the reign of the present Maharaja, who since his accession to the throne has initiated several major social reforms. The nobility has been stripped of its hereditary titles; the large estates have been broken up and the slaves-some 5,000 in number-set free. To slaves who did not wish to become employees of their former owners, the maharaja offered land from his own estates and persuaded other large landowners to follow his example. As of mid-1964 is was not possible to determine the eventual outcome of these reforms. A core of technicians and skilled workers was to be trained to operate the planned new schools, hospitals and industries; these new occupations and social roles would necessarily make further alterations in the traditional order of the society and its associated values. Noble birth, membership in the order of monks and ownership of land and animals would presumably all decline in importance as new marks of social status emerged and ascribed status gave way to achieved status. Many traditional patterns and values continued to prevail and appeared likely to do so for many years to come. The nobility, although it has lost its hereditary titles, still made up the bulk of the intellectual and administrative elite; the clergy continued in its traditional role; and the mass of the people went on earning its livelihood in the traditional ways as small cultivators, stockbreeders or traders. The Economy A predominantly agrarian country, Bhutan is favored by natural resources and fertile soil. Its economic development, however, is hampered by the limited land available for cultivation and the country's general inaccessibility and lack of transport facilities, qualified technicians, modern equipment and convenient markets. Land Use Topography, climate and rainfall combine to severely limit land use. Because the generally rugged character of the country is interrupted by only a few scattered wide places in the valleys, the land available for agriculture is extremely small. About 70 percent of the total area is covered with forests; most of the remainder consists of savannah in the subtropical south, alpine meadows and permanent snow in the north. The mountain valleys in which most agriculture is concentrated are fertile and well watered, but the mountains themselves act as barriers against precipitation, so that the protected slopes on the leeward side receive less rainfall than those on the opposite side. Almost all agricultural land is irrigated, including some of the rice fields on the terraced foothills. Land Tenure The maharaja has given high priority to land reform, restricted individual ownership of land to 30 acres, and distributed all of his own holdings except that amount. As a result almost all farmers own their own land and tenancy is rare. All forests belong to the Crown, but villagers have the right to collect firewood, manure and compost in the forest adjoining the village. Land tax is the government's most important source of revenue. The dzong serve as collection centers for taxes paid in homespun cloth, dried yak meat, rice, wheat and butter. The maharaja is also modernizing the tax system, and on a trial basis the payment of tax in kind has been replaced in some regions by cash. Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Most Bhutanese engage in agriculture, women working alongside men in the fields. Farms are located in river valleys and on the adjoining slopes of the mountains, with fields laid out in a series of terraces built up on, and divided by, stone embankments fenced with pine branches. Most fields are irrigated by long stone aqueducts or canals maintained by the village. Sometimes within a single valley terraces may be found on slopes at elevations ranging from 4,000 to 9,000 feet, making it possible to produce a wide variety of crops. Bhutan's main crop is rice, grown at elevations up to 4,000 feet; barley is grown up to 8,000 feet and wheat to 9,000 feet. Potatoes, radishes and turnips are also raised. In the southeastern part of the country, market gardening has been developed and there are orchards of tangerines, oranges and bananas. Most farmers keep livestock: buffalo in the south, cattle at lower altitudes and yaks at higher. They also raise sheep, goats, pigs and chickens. Those Bhutanese, who are more stockbreeders than farmers, live almost entirely in the northern mountains where they use the alpine pastures for grazing in the summer months, driving cattle up to 14,000 feet and yaks to even higher elevations. Horses (of a small native breed used as pack animals) and mules are also numerous. Under the Five-Year Plan (1961-66), government orchards to grow apple, apricot, peach and other fruit trees have been started and an animal husbandry and a piggery center opened. A Department of Agriculture is to be established; a research institute, demonstration dairy farm and veterinary hospital are also planned. Some Bhutanese are under training in India to staff these organizations. Forestry Forests are extensive and a greatly potential source of wealth, but they are not exploited other than as grazing grounds because cheap transport is not available. The Five-Year Plan proposes the establishment of a Department of Forestry, the demarcation of forests, surveys of medicinal plants and paper pulp resources, and the training of forestry officers. Preliminary surveys have established the feasibility of a resin-tapping and turpentine factory, and some timber can be used to make packing cases. To overcome the transport problem, studies are being made of the possibility of building ropeways and of using rivers whose flow is steady throughout the year. Minerals, Power, Industry and Handicrafts In its investigation of the rich mineral resources of the country the Geological Survey of India team of geologists has discovered commercially valuable deposits of copper, mica, gypsum and iron ore. Dolomite has been exported to India since 1960. Under the Five-Year Plan the 30,000-ton annual coal production from mines in the south is to be doubled for export to the tea gardens of Assam. Quarries of graphite await development, and there are plans to make use of gypsum to manufacture some types of crude fertilizer. Indian engineers, with a view to the production of hydroelectric power, have been surveying Bhutan's many rivers and streams for likely dam sites. A number of small stations to be established at Paro Dzong, Thimbu, Tashi Chho Dzong, Wangu Phodrang, Byakar Dzong, Mongar Dzong, Tashi Gang Dzong, Tongsa Dzong, Ha Dzong, Sarbhang and Samdrup Jonghkar have been recommended. Already under construction on the Jaldhaka River (flowing from Bhutan into West Bengal) is a power project financed by the West Bengal government. Under a pact signed by the two governments, Bhutan will received 250 kilowatts daily free of charge. The West Bengal government will also pay the Bhutan Government an annual royalty of IR8 per kilowatt for the rest of the power, estimated at 18,000 kilowatts, generated from the project, which is scheduled for completion in 1965. Industry is negligible but is represented by a fruit-preserving plant (which processes oranges and pineapples) and a distillery, both located at Samchhi. The establishment of other small enterprises to produce horseshoes, power looms, sports goods, utensils, leather goods and wood products is contemplated. The most important project, however, is the paper pulp plant to use the pines in the upper reaches of the Wong Chu River, a project which has been surveyed and recommended by both a Swedish and a Japanese firm. Handicrafts are widespread; the Bhutanese, noted as skilled craftsmen, produce fine metalwork, particularly copper utensils ornamented with silver. Woodcarving is a specialty, along with the ancient art of weaving woolen and cotton fabrics. Another important craft is the production from the bark of local bushes of handmade paper, exported in large quantities to other Himalayan regions. Trade and Transport Trade with Tibet provided a great source of income to Bhutanese traders before 1953. It consisted of the export of woolen cloth, spices, rice, food grains, handmade paper and yak cheese and the import of wool, salt and yak herds. Rice was particularly important, since it sold for IR180 per maund (82 pounds) in Tibet as compared with IR15 per maund in Bhutan. The Bhutanese Government decided to end this flourishing trade relationship in 1953, however, because of Communist Chinese aggressions in Tibet and the reported efforts to subject Bhutanese merchants to political indoctrination while they were in that country. Almost all trade has been with India since then. India supplies kerosene, gasoline, sugar and cotton textiles, and Bhutan exports dolomite, coal and agricultural produce (including rice) to Indian markets. The 1949 treaty with India provides for free trade between the two, and the Reserve Bank of India makes exchange available to the Bhutanese Government to finance imports. The total annual imports, however, are estimated at no more than IR300,000. Construction of a network of new roads, financed and built under Indian direction, facilitated the expansion of trade with India after 1960. Although it had been prompted more by strategic than by economic considerations, the new Indian trade helped to alleviate the resentment Bhutanese merchants expressed at the cut-off of their profitable rice trade with Tibet. The roads were being built by Indian engineers and some 24,000 Bhutanese laborers, about the maximum that could be spared for road development projects, because of manpower limitations. Every adult living in an area served by one of these roads was legally obligated to contribute 23 days of labor each year or to send a substitute. Development The First Five-Year Plan for the country's economic and social development was launched in 1961. The program, prepared with the assistance of a technical team sent by India's Planning Commission, aimed to increase revenues and fully exploit natural resources. The total cost of IR175 million was wholly underwritten by India. Major emphasis is on road building, for which IR101 million has been allocated. IR19 million is to be spent on trucks, buses, motor vehicle repair shops and a telephone system; IR18 million on education; IR12.7 million on mineral development; and the remainder on agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, power and health.