$Unique_ID{COW00383} $Pretitle{235A} $Title{Bhutan Chapter 1. Physical Environment} $Subtitle{} $Author{George L. Harris} $Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army} $Subject{bhutan british india bhutan's bhutanese feet west government himalayan miles} $Date{1973} $Log{Figure 19.*0038301.scf Figure 20.*0038302.scf } Country: Bhutan Book: Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, An Area Study: Bhutan Author: George L. Harris Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army Date: 1973 Chapter 1. Physical Environment Bhutan, second largest of the three Himalayan kingdoms, is situated within the eastern sector of the main range which arcs around Tibet's southern and western borders. Slightly larger than Switzerland and elliptical in shape, it has common frontiers with only three states: Tibet, on the west, north and northeast; India on the east, south and southwest; Sikkim on the west. Its total population, estimated in 1964 at approximately 725,000, consists principally of Bhote, a people of Tibetan origin, and a large Nepalese minority (see fig. 1). The country's rugged mountainous terrain was of major importance in determining its history. Because the few high valleys in which the population was concentrated were accessible only with great difficulty, the Bhote lived in isolation in the Himalayan range for centuries, their only uninterrupted contact with the outside world having been by way of trade caravans to and from Tibet. Internally the terrain made for centuries of feudal fragmentation and internecine warfare among rival groups, whose fierce jealousies led to almost continual conflict and bloodshed. Tibetan Buddhist cultural influences have long dominated Bhutanese society. Lamas from Tibet introduced Buddhism to the area, eventually establishing it as the dominant faith, and in the early seventeenth century set up a formal government structure based on a division of authority between temporal and spiritual leaders, which persisted unchanged until the turn of the twentieth century. Under the present Maharaja, Jigme Dorji Wangchuk, who has ruled since 1962, Bhutan is confronted with powerful forces for change, especially in view of the tension created by the Chinese Communist aggressions along the Indian border which took place in October 1962. With strong support from India, which since 1959 has had the responsibility for conducting Bhutan's external affairs, it is undertaking a carefully planned program of economic and social development and slowly entering the modern world. The society is predominantly rural, and no towns or urbanized communities in the Western sense exist. The largest populated places are clusters of houses built around a structure called a dzong, a combination of fortress and administrative and religious center. Neither great concentrations of wealth nor grinding poverty are evident. Farming is the principal means of livelihood, and families are generally self-sufficient, producing their own food, weaving their own cloth, and building and repairing their own houses. On the whole they eat and dress well, show little desire to possess luxuries and are seemingly content to follow a way of life which has as yet barely been touched by modern influences. Barter is the basis of Bhutan's economy; with the exception of two token Bhutanese coins, Indian currency is used for the infrequent cash transactions. The total annual revenue of the government is not more than IR5 million to IR6 million (for value of the Indian rupee, see Glossary). Land tax accounts for more than half the total revenue, other sources being the cattle tax, grazing fees and excises. More than half the government's expenditures are for defense; a traditional practice of supporting several thousand lamas in eight monasteries accounts for an additional 25 percent. India, on its part, has financed the Five-Year Plan (1961-66) of economic development and provides an annual subsidy of IR1.2 million. The Maharaja theoretically is an absolute monarch, but by the Indo-Bhutan Treaty of Perpetual Peace and Friendship signed on August 8, 1949, his government agreed to be guided by the advice of India in the conduct of external affairs, while the government of India agreed to refrain from interference in Bhutan's internal administration. To assist in his administration the Maharaja has a Prime Minister, an Advisory Council of eight persons and a National Advisory Assembly called the Tsongdu, composed of about 140 members. Bhutan is virtually autonomous in the administration of its internal affairs and has more influence over the conduct of its foreign affairs than does Sikkim. Some Bhutanese leaders contend that, in view of the vague phrasing of the Indo-Bhutan Treaty, Bhutan is not strictly obliged to accept India's advice. However, the Maharaja and his government, recognizing their dependent status, have always heeded India's counsel, and the divergent viewpoints in this respect have not become the subject of serious dispute. India maintains liaison with both the Bhutanese and Sikkimese Governments by means of a political officer in Gangtok. For defense purposes India regards Bhutan's northern boundary as a part of its own frontier. The invasion of Tibet in 1950 by Communist China raised the question of that country's intentions toward Bhutan and the other Himalayan states. The threat to Bhutan seemed particularly serious as early as 1954, when the Peiping authorities distributed maps showing extensive areas in northeastern and northwestern Bhutan within Communist China. Apprehensions mounted in October 1962 when Chinese Communist forces moved across the frontier into India's North East Frontier Agency, just east to Bhutan. But as of early 1964 the Chinese Communists had refrained from entering Bhutanese territory, and the Bhutanese authorities had consistently rejected Peiping's offers for aid and its proposals to enter unilateral discussions regarding the demarcation of Bhutan's northern boundary. The Chinese Communist actions have, in fact, served to strengthen Bhutan's ties with India. The Land Size and Population Density The total area of Bhutan is some 18,000 square miles, its maximum distance from north to south being approximately 110 miles and that from east to west about 200 miles. In comparison with the other Himalayan kingdoms, the country is sparsely settled, with slightly more than 40 persons per square mile, as against 60 for Sikkim and 180 for Nepal. Boundaries The boundaries of the country cannot be identified by easily recognizable natural features. The indefinite common border with Tibet extends some 300 miles along the snow-capped and almost inaccessible crest of the main Himalayan Range, except for short distances in the northeast, northwest and west, where it lies south of the watershed. The alignment of this boundary has been repeatedly disputed by Communist China. The border with India, extending some 330 miles, was established by the British in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The eastern section of this border, following spurs and valleys on the southern slopes of the main Himalayan Range, runs some 90 miles between Bhutan and the Indian territory known as the North East Frontier Agency. On the south, the border with Assam (150 miles) and with West Bengal (90 miles) extends generally along the southern base of the abruptly rising Himalayan foothills. In some areas it includes the northern rim of the malarial Brahmaputra River lowlands, called the Duars Plain in this area. On the west, the boundary with Sikkim, extending only about 20 miles, was likewise established by the British and accepted by the Indian Government (see fig. 21). Strategic Passes The five passes through the Himalayas have determined the course of Bhutan's caravan routes with Tibet. Bhutanese chieftains formerly competed fiercely for control of these passes and the trade through them; the winners usually became rulers or powerful contenders for supreme authority. Since Bhutan stopped trading with Tibet in 1953 to impede the spread of Communist influence, the passes have lost their earlier significance. They now serve as escape routes for Tibetan refugees, and Bhutanese authorities regard them with concern as potential invasion routes for Chinese Communist forces. With elevations ranging from approximately 15,000 to more than 20,000 feet, the passes are negotiable only by pack animals or porters. The three most important appear to be those on routes leading from Paro Dzong in Bhutan across the northwestern frontier into the Chumbi Valley of Tibet. The southernmost of these leads to Yatung; the next, Tremo La pass, to Phari Dzong; and the northernmost, just beyond Lingshi Dzong, to Duna. On the eastern section of the frontier, the pass north of Thunkar leads to Lhasa over a Tibetan motorable road reportedly to be completed by the Chinese Communists by 1965. The pass at Shingbe is on the shortest route from Tibet to Tashi Gang Dzong, the most important community in eastern Bhutan. [See Figure 19.: Bhutan.] Other important passes include those within Bhutan which lead across the mountain spurs jutting southward from the main Himalayan Range. Tashi Gang Dzong in eastern Bhutan and Paro Dzong in the west are connected by the country's only lateral communication route, which must cross a series of valleys and ridges, averaging one for each 15 miles of trail. The two most critical passes on this east-west axis route are within 25 miles on either side of Tongsa Dzong, the most important community in central Bhutan; on the east is Rudong Pass, elevation 12,600 feet; on the west is Pele Pass, elevation 11,055 feet (see fig. 22). Mountains Bhutan is entirely mountainous, except for narrow strips of the Duars Plain which protrude across the southern borders into the Himalayan foothills at several places. Elevations vary from approximately 1,000 feet in the south to almost 25,000 feet in the north. The people are proud of their mountains, which are relatively unknown to the outside world, mainly because of the country's past policy of seclusion. Visitors are impressed with the scenic beauty of the snow-capped peaks and the variegated pattern of the rugged and deeply carved landscape. Along the northern border there are four peaks with elevations above 20,000 feet. The highest is Gangri, elevation 24,740 feet, north of Tongsa Dzong; next in height is the country's most famous peak, picturesque Chomo Lhari, elevation 23,997 feet, northwest of Punakha. The most prominent spur jutting southward into Bhutan is the Black Mountain Range, which separates the country into two almost equal parts, with the dividing line at Pele Pass. Rivers All Bhutan's numerous rivers flow generally southward through gorges and narrow valleys, eventually to drain into the Brahmaputra some 50 miles south of the boundary with India. Except in the east and in the west, the headwaters of the streams are in the regions of permanent snow along the Tibetan border. None of the rivers is navigable, but many are potential sources of hydroelectric power. The area east of the Black Mountain watershed is drained by the Tongsa Chu and its tributaries, the Bumtang and Dangme. West of the Black Mountain Range the drainage pattern changes to a series of parallel streams, beginning with the Sankosh River and its tributary, the Pho Chu. Farther west are the Paro Chu and Wong Chu which join to form the Raidak before it flows through the Sinchu La pass into India. Still farther west are the Torsa and Jaldhaka Rivers which rise in the Chumbi Valley and in Sikkim, respectively. [See Figure 20.: Physical Features of Bhutan.] Mineral and Timber Resources Deposits of coal, mica, graphite, iron ore, copper, gypsum and limestone are present in quantities sufficient for profitable exploitation. Other mineral findings include dolomite and gold. The most readily available natural resource is timber, as more than two-thirds of Bhutan's total area is forest covered. Oaks, birches, conifers and various trees suitable for paper pulp, turpentine and resin are plentiful, but these resources remain untapped. Flora and Fauna Vegetation is generally lush wherever soil is available and varies from tropical jungles in the south to alpine grasses and flowers in the north. Uncultivated areas in the narrow Duars Plain are rank with tall, coarse grasses and bamboo thickets. On the adjacent low-lying hills are dense forests composed mainly of sal, magnolia and rhododendron trees intermingled with tangled undergrowth. The region abounds with animal life, such as the elephant, leopard, tiger, deer and python. Farther north in the high valleys and steep slopes astride the central axis through Tashi Gang Dzong and Paro Dzong, types of vegetation depend mainly on elevation and exposure to the monsoonal rains. The most densely wooded forests are on the rainy windward (generally westward) slopes. At lower altitudes along this axis and to the south, oak and birch trees predominate in most areas. In the mixed forests to the north and on the crests of the high ridges to the south, conifers generally predominate over the oak and birch. Above 12,000 feet, trees become increasingly dwarfed and a variety of grasses provide favorable grazing for the hardy Bhutanese cattle and yaks during the short summers. At 14,000 feet almost all vegetation has disappeared, except in sheltered spots. The mountain forests support various species of animal life, including the bear, deer, leopard and tiger. Leeches are a particular source of annoyance to man and beast. Climate The monsoonal alternation of wet and dry seasons, characteristic of the general area, is complicated in Bhutan by topography and altitude as in the other Himalayan states. The moisture-laden southerly winds from the Bay of Bengal bring the heaviest rains each year from about May to December. Windward southern slopes consistently receive heavier precipitation than the protected adjacent leeward slopes. Meteorological statistics are lacking, but according to information based on general impressions of its infrequent visitors, the country may be divided into three general climatic zones. In the Duars Plain and adjacent low valleys, at elevations up to 5,000 feet, the climate is subtropical with high humidity and heavy rainfall, estimated at 80 to 200 inches each year. From 5,000 to 10,000 feet it is temperate, with cool winters and hot summers. From 10,000 to 15,000 feet the climate is still temperate, but with cold winters and cool summers; the annual rainfall averages from 40 to 60 inches. Above 15,000 feet, an arctic climate prevails, with most areas permanently covered with snow or glaciers. History Little is known of the history of Bhutan before the late eighteenth century. It is generally assumed that the forebears of the dominant ethnic group, the Bhote, came from Tibet, but the time of their arrival is uncertain. Of the several versions suggested by modern scholars, the most probable is that expansion across the mountains began in the ninth century when Tibet, at the height of its power, sent troops to seize control of the area. According to this account the Tibetan invaders met with little resistance in Bhutan, at that time a Hindu state ruled by a maharaja, and readily brought it under their control. Many of the local inhabitants fled south to the foothills at the base of the main Himalayan range or withdrew to Cooch Behar (now in West Bengal), a region with which they had ancestral connections. Small groups of farmers, herdsmen and Buddhist priests followed the Tibetan warriors across the mountains, the main influx coming in a southeastward direction through the Chumbi Valley and across into Bhutan over several high passes in the main Himalayan range. By the mid-sixteenth century a number of dzongs had been established in western Bhutan at places in the valleys where the terrain was sufficiently hospitable for habitation, including sites as far south as Punakha, now the summer capital, and Wangdu Phodrang. Intermarriage between the Tibetans and the descendants of those of the original inhabitants who remained had become common and many of the later, originally Hindus or animists, had been converted to the Lamaist Buddhism of their conquerors. Development of the government began early in the seventeenth century when a Tibetan lama, believed by his followers to be a reincarnation of Buddha, established his authority over the others and was given the title of Dharma Raja (spiritual leader). His successor is said to have organized the country into several territories, or provinces, each of which included one or more forts within its jurisdictional area. The governors (penlops), who administered these territories, were appointed officials, who in turn appointed subordinate governors (called jungpens) from among the leaders in their respective forts. The Dharma Rajas concerned themselves primarily with religious matters, leaving authority over secular affairs to an appointed minister, who soon became known as the Deb Raja (temporal leader). Subsequently, as the Dharma Raja became increasingly preoccupied with spiritual matters, the Deb Raja came to be regarded as the actual head of state, and his post was given to persons "elected" by a council of penlops and jungpens. In practice the most powerful penlop, usually the most influential landlord in the country, either appointed the Deb Raja or usurped the post for himself. Thus, a change in the post of Deb Raja frequently resulted in a change of penlops and their subordinate jungpens, a system which bred intense rivalries for rulership, as the ousted officials customarily would occupy their time in making preparations to regain power by any possible means. Beset by internal difficulties, Bhutan nevertheless followed an aggressive policy toward its neighbors during the eighteenth century, sending frequent raiding parties across the western and northern borders. Its warriors plundered wide areas in Sikkim, kidnaped the king and carried off many captives, emerging from a series of engagements in possession of the Ha valley and the Kalimpong region (then a part of Sikkim and now in West Bengal). Bhutan's aggressions on the southern border, however, were far less successful. In 1771 when the Deb Raja sent troops into Cooch Behar-possibly to prevent any British attempt to set up a trade route through his country to Tibet-the British intervened, drove the Bhutanese out and pursued them into their own territory. Peace was arranged in 1773, largely through the intercession of Tibet. Disputes along this border nevertheless continued into the early nineteenth century, with the result that in 1841 the Government of British India annexed the Duars Plain to Assam, placing its northern frontier along the general line of the present boundary. The British in return agreed to pay a small annual subsidy to the Bhutanese as long as they remained peaceful. Bhutanese raiders continued to operate across the border, carrying off Indian subjects of the British as slaves. In 1863 a British representative, sent to Bhutan to protest against these infractions, was kidnaped and forced to sign an agreement returning the Duars Plain to Bhutan. After escaping, he repudiated the agreement, stopped the subsidy and demanded restoration of the captives. When the demands were rejected in 1865, British troops invaded Bhutan and forced the Bhutanese authorities to sue for peace. Under the terms of the Sinchu La Treaty, which terminated hostilities, the Duars Plain and Kalimpong were ceded back to British India, the Bhutanese agreed to refer any dispute with Sikkim or Cooch Behar to the British Government for negotiation and Bhutan's annual subsidy was greatly increased. Thereafter, relations with the British Government in India remained satisfactory. The dual system of government, which has been in existence for some 300 years, was discontinued in the early twentieth century when the incumbent Dharma Raja died and no successor who could qualify as the reincarnation of Buddha could be found. The Deb Raja then took on the added responsibility of administering to the spiritual needs of the people. The post of Dharma Raja finally was abolished in 1907, when with British support Ugyen Wangchuk, the penlop of Tongsa province in the eastern region, was elected hereditary maharaja of the country. Hereditary secular and religious rule vested in the Wangchuk family facilitated the establishment of a unified, centrally administered government for the first time in Bhutan's history. In 1910 Bhutan, in return for a further increase in its annual subsidy, agreed to accept British guidance in its external affairs while refusing to allow British interference in its internal affairs. This decision meant that Bhutan did not receive help in building roads, expanding communications and developing the economy as did Sikkim, which was a British protectorate. The pace of its development during the first half of the twentieth century was therefore extremely slow. The nation's limited resources continued to be drained off to support the monasteries, no roads were built, word of mouth remained virtually the only means of communication, and almost no one other than the ruling circle acquired more than a rudimentary education. Although, as in Sikkim, certain changes were set in motion by the continuing arrival of immigrants from Nepal, Bhutan's rulers chose as far as possible to insulate the country against exposure to the outside world. After World War II, India achieved independence and took over Great Britain's responsibilities in the realm of Bhutan's foreign affairs. With Indian support the country, under a forward-looking maharaja who has completely reversed the former policy of isolation, has made a slow but steady beginning toward entering the modern world.