$Unique_ID{bob00536} $Pretitle{} $Title{United Kingdom Housing} $Subtitle{} $Author{Embassy of the United Kingdom, Washington DC} $Affiliation{Embassy of the United Kingdom, Washington DC} $Subject{housing local scotland areas authorities england wales ireland northern public} $Date{1990} $Log{} Title: United Kingdom Book: Planning and the Environment in Britain Author: Embassy of the United Kingdom, Washington DC Affiliation: Embassy of the United Kingdom, Washington DC Date: 1990 Housing The pattern of housing tenure has changed considerably in recent years, with a substantial increase in owner-occupation and a decline in privately rented accommodation. Between the end of 1971 and 1987 the proportion of dwellings that were owner-occupied in Great Britain rose from 51 to 64 per cent, while the proportion rented from a local authority or new town authority fell from 31 to 26 per cent, and the proportion of other types of tenure fell from 19 to 10 per cent. The fall in the last category reflected the decline in privately rented dwellings, while the number of housing association dwellings increased substantially during this period. There are variations, however, in the distribution of tenure between different parts of the country; owner-occupation ranges from 42 per cent in Scotland to 70 per cent in south-west England. The encouragement of further home ownership and the regeneration of the independent rented sector are major aims of the Government's housing policy, while the emphasis of public sector housing policy has shifted from new building to modernisation, improvement and making better use of existing dwellings. There are over 22.6 million dwellings in Britain, houses being much more common than flats (the ratio is roughly four to one), and around 50 per cent of families live in a post-1945 home. Throughout this century pressure on housing accommodation has been increased more by the rapid rise in the number of separate households than by the increase in population. While the number of people has increased by about two-fifths, the number of households has more than doubled. New house construction is undertaken by both public and private sectors but over the past few years the private sector has built many more dwellings than the public sector. In 1987, 5 per cent of new building was carried out by voluntary housing associations. Private interests build mainly for sale to owner-occupiers while public sector dwellings are provided mainly for renting, although tenants do have the right to buy the property in which they live after a qualifying period. Administration As with environmental planning, responsibility for formulating housing policy and supervising the housing programme is borne by the Secretary of State for the Environment in England and by the Secretaries of State for Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Although the policies are broadly similar throughout Britain, provisions may differ slightly in Northern Ireland and Scotland from those in England and Wales. The construction or structural alteration of housing is subject to building regulations laid down by the Government. Building in the private sector is regulated by an independent organisation, the National House-Building Council, which sets standards and enforces them by inspection and certification. Almost all new private houses are covered by the Council's insurance scheme which provides ten-year guarantees against major structural defects. A two-year guarantee is also given against faulty workmanship. Most lenders will only make a loan for purchase of a new house if it is covered by the Council's certificate. Local authorities are responsible for the payment of house renovation grants and the implementation of housing renewals programmes. (In Northern Ireland the Northern Ireland Housing Executive has these responsibilities.) Many have housing advisory centres to provide information on aspects of housing. Home Ownership The number of people owning their own homes has more than trebled in the last 35 years, and the number of owner-occupied dwellings in Great Britain amounted to over 14 million at the end of 1986, compared with 4 million in 1951. Most public sector tenants have the right to buy the homes they occupy at discounts which vary according to the length of their occupancy. Local authorities have been asked to encourage low-cost home ownership by selling land to builders to construct homes for `first-time' buyers, or to individuals or groups to build their own `first-time' homes in partnership with private builders; by improving homes for sale; by selling dilapidated homes for improvement by the purchaser ('homesteading'); by offering shared ownership (part owning, part renting); and by using local authority guarantee powers to facilitate lending by building societies and other financial institutions. In Northern Ireland shared ownership has been developed in the public sector by the Northern Ireland Housing Executive and in the private sector by the Northern Ireland Co-ownership Housing Association. The Executive has offered most of its homes for sale to tenants; almost 35,000 have been sold. Mortgage Loans Most people buy their homes with a mortgage loan (for which the properties are regarded as securities) from such sources as building societies, banks, insurance companies, industrial and provident societies, and local authorities. Some companies also make loans for house purchase to their own employees. Building societies are the largest source of such loans, although banks and other financial institutions are taking an increasing share of the mortgage market. For first-time buyers a lender will usually advance about 90 per cent of the valuation of a property with the help of an appropriate insurance guarantee, but it is possible to borrow up to 100 per cent. Loans are normally repayable over periods of 20 or 25 years (up to 30 or 35 years in certain circumstances) by equal monthly installments to cover capital and interest. Ordinary mortgage loans from building societies are usually available to purchasers on average income or above. People with insufficient income to obtain a mortgage for outright purchase may be able to participate in a scheme in which a housing association buys the home and sells a share in it to them, allowing them to rent the remainder and to purchase it later if they wish. Owner-occupiers are entitled to tax relief on interest payments arising from their mortgage loans on up to 30,000 Pounds a property (on their main home only). Under the Homeloan Scheme first-time home buyers who have saved for two years and are buying a home in the lower price range may qualify for an extra loan of 600 Pounds interest-free for up to five years, and a tax-free bonus of up to 110 Pounds. Public Sector Housing Most of the public housing in Great Britain is provided by 460 local housing authorities. The authorities are: in England (outside London) and Wales, the district councils; in London, the London borough councils and the Common Council of the City of London; and in Scotland, the district and islands councils. Other public housing authorities are the new town authorities, the Scottish Special Housing Association, which supplements building by local authorities in Scotland, and the Development Board for Rural Wales. The Northern Ireland Housing Executive is responsible for the provision and management of public housing in Northern Ireland. Public housing authorities own about 6 million houses and flats. The number of homes owned by each authority varies widely, from 141 homes in the Isles of Scilly to 165,000 in Glasgow. Most authorities own between 2,500 and 15,000 dwellings. The Northern Ireland Housing Executive owns almost 175,000 homes. Local authorities meet the capital costs of new house construction and of modernisation of their existing stock by raising loans on the open market, by borrowing from the Public Works Loan Board (an independent statutory body set up to make loans to local authorities) or from the capital receipts generated by the sale of local authority houses and housing land. The Northern Ireland Housing Executive is similarly financed. Sheltered housing (usually accommodation with an alarm system and resident warden) is provided for those elderly people who need this degree of support, but increasing emphasis is being placed on schemes to help elderly people to continue to live in their own homes and on schemes to adapt existing housing to meet the needs of physically handicapped people. Local authorities have a statutory duty to ensure that accommodation (not necessarily owned by the authority) is available for homeless people who have dependent children or are vulnerable on grounds such as age or disability. The Housing Act 1980 (consolidated in the Housing Act 1985) established a charter for public sector tenants in England and Wales, giving them statutory rights which include security of tenure; provision for a resident member of the tenant's family to succeed to the tenancy on the death of the tenant; the right to exchange homes and to take in lodgers; and, at the landlord's discretion, subletting and reimbursement for improvements made by the tenant. With a few exceptions, public sector tenants of at least two years' standing can buy their house on flat at a discount which depends on the length of occupation. Similar provisions are made for Scotland and Northern Ireland under separate legislation. By the end of 1987, 1.1 million council, housing association and new town homes had been sold. The Housing Bill (see below) would make provision for public sector tenants to change their landlord where they are not satisfied with the service provided by their local authority. Where there are serious social problems and housing disrepair, Housing Action Trusts would be set up to take over responsibility for local authority housing in designated areas (see p 201). A National Mobility Scheme, sponsored by the Department of the Environment, the Scottish Development Department, the Welsh Office and the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland, assists tenants who need to move to another area for employment or social reasons. Tenants who wish to move by exchanging homes are able to make use of the Tenants Exchange Scheme, a free computer-based national information scheme. Privately Rented Housing There has been a steady decline in the number of rented dwellings available from private landlords (including tied accommodation), from over 50 per cent of the housing stock in 1951 to less than 8 per cent in 1987 (under 2 million dwellings). Major factors have been the increased demand for owner-occupation, the greater availability of public rented housing and the operation of rent restriction. Privately rented dwellings are predominantly found in older housing. Many landlords are individuals owning a small amount of property, but some rented housing is provided by larger property owners, including property companies. The Government's policy is to increase the availability of privately rented accommodation and it is encouraging a greater variety of agencies to let such accommodation. This is being implemented through the Housing Bill for England and Wales and the Housing (Scotland) Bill, which would provide for the deregulation of new private sector lettings, the reform of housing association finance, the creation of Housing Action Trusts in England, and, for council tenants, the right to choose a new landlord. Most private lettings are subject to the system of protection provided by the Rent Act 1977 (and similar legislation in Scotland) and associated legislation. Where the letting is a fully protected `regulated tenancy', the tenant or the landlord may apply for a `fair rent' to be fixed by independent rent officers and there is a wide degree of security of tenure. Under the Housing Bills, two forms of tenancy would be created: the assured tenancy, which would give the tenant long-term security in return for a market rent, to be freely negotiated between landlord and tenant: and the assured shorthold tenancy (short assured tenancy in Scotland), which would be for a fixed term, at a rent to be negotiated between landlord and tenant. The holder of a shorthold tenancy, however, would be able to apply to a rent assessment committee for the rent to be determined at any time once the tenancy had started, and the committee would be empowered to reduce the rent if it proved to be excessive in comparison with other market rents for shorthold tenancies of similar property in the area. The previous system of registered fair rents would continue for existing lettings. The Bills would strengthen the law concerning harassment of tenants, which is a criminal offence, and provide for improved compensation for tenants driven out by harassment or illegally evicted. Tenants and most other residential occupiers may not be evicted without a court order. It is expected that rents would move towards market levels, and more premises be made available to rent. Government support would be focused on tenants, rather than on property, through the housing benefit system. Depending on their personal circumstances, occupiers may be eligible for housing benefit to assist them in paying their rent and rates. In Northern Ireland only certain pre-1956 properties subject to rent restriction come under statutory control. Rent levels are linked to those of the Northern Ireland Housing Executive, and both landlords and tenants may apply to a rent assessment committee for rent determination in cases where the current rent is considered to be inappropriate. Rent increases are permitted only for properties which meet a prescribed standard. There are no assured tenancies in Northern Ireland but lettings under the shorthold concept are available. Housing Associations Housing associations extend the choice of housing by providing accommodation available for rent or sale through new building or the rehabilitation of older property. The associations normally cater for people who would otherwise look to a local authority for a home, and also provide particularly for the special needs of elderly, disabled and single people. The associations, which are non-profit-making, have grown under government encouragement and now own over 500,000 homes and 2,600 hostels. Individual associations range in size from a group of `almshouses' for fewer than ten old people to associations with more than 10,000 homes. In Great Britain housing schemes carried out by associations qualify for government grant if the association is one of over 2,600 registered with the Housing Corporation, a statutory body. Under existing legislation most rented homes owned by housing associations are let on secure tenancies subject to the fair rent arrangements. Secure housing association tenants have rights under the tenants' charter in the Housing Act 1985-in Scotland the Housing (Scotland) Act 1987-including, in some cases, the right to buy or the possibility of a discount on the purchase of an alternative home. Housing associations also provide accommodation on a shared ownership basis, allowing the occupier to part-rent and part-own a home, and they can purchase improved older properties for outright sale. Both activities are eligible for government grants. Under the Housing Bills all new housing association lettings would be on an assured tenancy basis or a shorthold basis in the same way as in the private sector. This would give the associations the flexibility in setting rents to enable them to meet the requirements of private sector finance instead of relying on public finance. In Scotland a new housing development agency, Scottish Homes, would be set up under the Housing (Scotland) Bill, with a wide range of general functions and powers, both providing financial assistance to housing associations and others, and directly owning, managing and disposing of housing. It would incorporate both the Housing Corporation in Scotland and the Scottish Special Housing Association. Under the Housing Bill a new body, Housing for Wales, would be set up to carry out the functions undertaken in Wales by the Housing Corporation, which would operate in England only. In Northern Ireland broadly similar assistance is available to associations registered with the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland. Rent levels are linked to those of the Northern Ireland Housing Executive. Tenants have rights under a tenants' charter, but not the right to buy, although housing associations may sell their dwellings voluntarily, with discount as appropriate, in line with the right to buy arrangements. Improving Older Houses In urban areas of Britain slum clearance and redevelopment used to be major features of housing policy, but large-scale clearance is now virtually at an end, and there has been a trend in recent years towards the retention of existing communities accompanied by the modernisation and conversion of substandard homes. Housing conditions have improved considerably, but problems remain in some areas where there are high concentrations of dwellings lacking basic amenities or requiring substantial repairs; and there are still some pockets of unfit housing for which demolition is considered the best solution. The emphasis now is on area renewal, with an integrated approach to renewal and renovation. More recently there has been concern about the problems associated with high-density local authority estates in inner city areas or on the outskirts of cities, some of which have not been popular with tenants, and about serious structural defects found in some local authority dwellings. Authorities are tackling these problems in a variety of ways including refurbishment and sale to the private sector. In Scotland community-based housing associations and tenant ownership co-operatives are being formed by some groups of tenants. Scottish Homes would be given a major role in tackling housing-related urban dereliction, in co-operation with local communities, the private sector and other statutory agencies. The Government's Estate Action Initiative, which started in 1985, is working with local authorities to deal with the problems of their run-down council estates. Measures which are being developed include local housing management along the lines of the Department of the Environment's Priority Estates Project (see below); the injection of private sector skills and resources; capital investment in the refurbishment of the housing stock; community refurbishment schemes to enable previously unemployed people to work on environmental improvements; the development of tenant management and ownership co-operatives; measures to increase the diversification of tenures on estates; and the stimulation of local employment and business enterprise opportunities. Approval has been given to 250 schemes involving additional resources of 50 million Pounds in 1986-87 and 75 million Pounds in 1987-88. Resources for 1988-89 have been almost doubled to 104 million Pounds. The Priority Estates Project (PEP) was set up in England in 1979 (in Wales in 1983) to promote locally based housing management, under which control of landlords' services is devolved to a local team with maximum involvement and consultation of residents. There are 36 projects on estates in England and Wales, and many local authorities are now applying local management to their own estates. Several schemes in England propose the formation of a local management board to act as the management agent on behalf of the local authority. Broadly similar arrangements apply in Northern Ireland. Where social problems and housing disrepair are so serious that additional action is required, the Housing Bill provides for the establishment of Housing Action Trusts in England. These would take over responsibility for local authority housing in designated areas, renovate it and then pass it to other owners and managers, including housing associations, tenants' co-operatives and approved private landlords. The trusts would also act to facilitate the provision of other community needs, such as shops, workshops and advice centres, and to encourage local enterprise. Over 1.4 million home improvement grants were paid in respect of privately owned dwellings in Great Britain between 1980 and 1987. There are five types of grant: improvement grants, for carrying out improvements to bring a property up to a good overall standard; intermediate grants, for the provision of standard amenities (such as a bath and an inside lavatory) and associated repairs; repair grants for substantial and structural repairs to pre-1919 houses (pre-1957 in Northern Ireland and pre-1964 in Scotland, where a grant can cover all forms of repair work); common parts grants (in England and Wales) for repairs and improvements to common parts of buildings containing flats; and special grants for providing standard amenities and repairs (not available in Scotland) and means of escape from fire in houses which are in multiple occupation. In addition, since 1978 grants for loft insulation have been paid in respect of some 3.5 million homes. Since February 1988 this scheme has been concentrated on low-income households. Declaring `general improvement areas' and `housing action areas' enables local authorities in England and Wales to tackle the improvement of whole areas systematically. General improvement areas, of which there are more than 1,800, contain fundamentally sound houses and a stable population, while housing action areas (of which there are about 200 in England and Wales) are characterised by relatively poor housing and bad environmental conditions combined with social problems. Local authorities have special powers to bring about an improvement in living conditions for the benefit of residents. In both types of area government financial aid for environmental improvement (such as landscaping and work to improve the external appearance of buildings) is available to local authorities. In these areas home improvement grants may range up to 75 per cent of the eligible expense limit, and in certain cases of hardship up to 90 per cent. `Enveloping', introduced in 1982, involves the renovation of the external fabric of whole terraces or streets of mainly privately owned property in housing action areas which has deteriorated beyond routine maintenance. It is carried out by local authorities at public expense, and the encouragement it gives to residents is reflected in the increased take-up of grants for improvements to the interiors after enveloping. An `improvement-for-sales' scheme has also been introduced; the Government helps to meet any loss a local authority may make in buying, improving and selling run-down or neglected housing. In Scotland housing action area powers are available for the improvement of areas in which at least half the houses fail to meet a statutory tolerable standard. Since 1975 some 1,580 housing action areas, covering houses requiring improvement or demolition, have been declared by local authorities. Outside such areas in Scotland local authorities have powers to require the improvement of houses below the statutory tolerable standard, or lacking certain basic amenities, by improvement orders. In housing action areas or where an improvement order has been made, grants of 75 per cent (up to 90 per cent in cases of hardship) of the eligible expense limit may be made. Government financial aid is also given towards the costs incurred by local authorities in improving the environment of predominantly residential areas. Northern Ireland has a large number of houses which are either unfit or in serious disrepair. Since 1977, 50 housing action areas have been declared, involving a continuous programme of rehabilitation, enveloping and associated environmental improvement schemes. In addition, the Northern Ireland Housing Executive undertakes a programme of improvement of its own stock. Conservation Britain is one of the leading countries in the conservation movement, with a wide range of groups, including many voluntary organisations, actively involved in environmental conservation and protection. Historic Buildings, Ancient Monuments and Conservation Areas Lists of buildings of special architectural or historical interest are compiled, as required by the planning Acts, by the Secretary of State for the Environment and the Secretaries of State for Scotland and Wales, some 416,000 buildings are listed in England, over 35,000 in Scotland and 11,000 in Wales. It is against the law to demolish, extend or alter the character of any listed building without special consent from the local planning authority or the appropriate Secretary of State; where consent is given to demolish a building, the Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (for England) and similar bodies for Scotland and Wales have an opportunity to make a photographic and written record of the building. Emergency `building preservation notices' can be served by the local planning authority to protect buildings not yet listed. Ancient monuments are similarly protected through a system of scheduling. There are 13,000 scheduled ancient monuments in England, about 4,500 in Scotland and over 2,600 in Wales. Maintaining royal parks (which are open to the public) and palaces is the responsibility of the Secretaries of State for the Environment and Scotland. English Heritage (the Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England) is charged with protecting and conserving England's architectural and archaeological heritage; it manages some 400 ancient monuments on behalf of the Secretary of State for the Environment and gives grants for the repair of ancient monuments, historic buildings and buildings in conservation areas in England. In Scotland and Wales similar functions are performed by the Historic Buildings and Monuments Directorate of the Scottish Development Department, which manages over 330 ancient monuments, and by Cadw (Welsh Historic Monuments), which manages 125, with advice from an ancient monuments board and a historic buildings council for each country. Local authorities can make grants and loans for any building of architectural or historic interest. The National Heritage Memorial Fund provides assistance towards the cost of acquiring, maintaining or preserving land, buildings, works of art and other items of outstanding interest which are also of importance to the national heritage. In 1987-88 the Fund assisted in the preservation of about 90 heritage items. Local planning authorities have designated for special protection about 6,000 `conservation areas' of particular architectural or historic interest in England. Grants and loans are available from the appropriate historic buildings and monuments body for works which make a significant contribution towards the preservation or enhancement of such an area. In Northern Ireland the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland has 160 historic monuments in its care, and some 850 monuments are scheduled for protection. It is also responsible for listing buildings of special architectural or historic interest and for designating conservation areas: there are some 7,200 listed buildings and 26 conservation areas. It may also provide grants and loans to help with the repair and maintenance of listed buildings and to preserve or enhance conservation areas. It is advised by a Historic Buildings Council and a Historic Monuments Council. Among the voluntary organisations which campaign for the preservation of buildings are the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings and the Ancient Monuments Society; the Georgian Group; the Architectural Heritage Society of Scotland; the Ulster Architectural Heritage Society; the Victorian Society; and the Council for British Archaeology. The National Trust (for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty), an independent charity with more than 1.5 million members, owns and protects over 200 historic buildings in addition to 252,600 hectares (624,200 acres) of land and 794 km (494 miles) of coastline in England, Northern Ireland and Wales Scotland has its own National Trust. Architectural Standards Besides helping to conserve the finest buildings inherited from the past, the Government encourages high standards in new building. The Department of the Environment, in collaboration with the independent Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) and the National House-Building Council, sponsors the biennial Housing Design Awards Scheme for England and Northern Ireland, with categories for renovation as well as new building. Scotland and Wales have similar but separate award schemes. The Government has also encouraged the use of architectural competitions, and has set an example in the award of some of its own contracts. Royal Fine Art Commissions for England and Wales and for Scotland advise government departments, planning authorities and other public bodies on questions of public amenity or artistic importance. The RIBA, the principal professional body for architects, exercises control over standards in architectural education and encourages the maintenance of high architectural standards in the profession. The Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland is allied to it, as is the Royal Society of Ulster Architects. The Civic Trust, with associate trusts in Scotland, Wales and north-east and north-west England, encourages high standards in urban design and the improvement and regeneration of the environment. Tree Preservation Local planning authorities have power to protect trees and woodlands in the interest of amenity by means of tree preservation orders. When granting planning permission for development, a local planning authority must, where appropriate, ensure adequate provision for the preservation or planting of trees. In general, landowners must replace trees which die or are removed, uprooted or destroyed in contravention of a preservation order. In October 1987 an estimated 15 million trees in the south and east of England were felled by gales of hurricane force. Many of the trees destroyed were in areas of outstanding natural beauty and in urban areas. The Government has made available 6 million Pounds for planting replacement trees and a special unit of the Countryside Commission (see p 205). `Task Force Trees', is administering the planting scheme. In addition, 250,000 Pounds was made available to the royal parks, which also suffered badly. Green Belts `Green belts' (areas where it is intended that the land should be left open and free from inappropriate building development and where people can seek recreation) have been established on the fringes of certain urban areas, including London, Merseyside, Greater Manchester and the West Midlands. They are intended to restrict the further sprawl of large built-up areas, to prevent neighbouring towns merging into one another, to assist in urban regeneration and to preserve the special character of a town and the amenities of the countryside. Some 1.8 million hectares (4.5 million acres) of land have been designated as green belt in Great Britain. In 1987 advice was given to local planning authorities to encourage alternative uses of farmland, and to assist rural enterprise and the diversification of the rural economy. Further policy guidance issued at the beginning of 1988 also reaffirmed the Government's commitment to the protection and maintenance of green belts. The Coast The maritime local planning authorities are responsible for planning land use at the coast, providing, for example, recreational facilities and amenities for holidaymakers and local residents; at the same time they attempt to safeguard and enhance the coast's natural attractions and preserve areas of scientific interest. The protection of the coastline against erosion is administered centrally by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, the Welsh Office and the Scottish Office. A comprehensive study of the coastline of England and Wales, undertaken by the Countryside Commission (see p 205) during the period 1966-70, recommended that certain stretches of undeveloped coast of particular scenic beauty should be treated as heritage coast. Jointly with local authorities, the Commission has defined 39 of these coasts so far, protecting 1,370 km (850 miles). In 1965 the National Trust launched its Enterprise Neptune campaign to raise funds for the nation to acquire stretches of coastline of great natural beauty and recreational value. More than 11 million Pounds has been raised so far and as a result the Trust has under its protection 794 km (494 miles) of coastline in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. As part of the campaign, relaunched in 1985, the Trust is raising funds to acquire a further 653 km (406 miles) considered at risk. Some 128 km (80 miles) of coast in Scotland are protected by conservation agreements with the National Trust for Scotland. In exceptional cases economic arguments override conservation; development associated with North Sea oil and gas is occurring on remote and unspoiled coastal areas in Scotland, for instance, but planning guidelines drawn up by the Scottish Development Department aim to ensure that oil-related activities are sited so as to make the best use of existing labour and infrastructure and to minimise the effect on the coastline. Provision has also been made for funds to be set aside for the restoration of sites once there is no further need for them. Countryside Commissions Two Countryside Commissions (one for England and Wales, the other for Scotland) are responsible for conserving and enhancing the natural beauty and amenity of the countryside, and for encouraging the provision and improvement of facilities for open-air recreation. These include the provision by local authorities (sometimes in association with other bodies) and private individuals of country parks and picnic sites often within easy reach of towns, the provision or improvement of recreational paths and the encouragement of amenity tree-planting schemes. The Countryside Commission recognises 222 country parks and 265 picnic sites in England and Wales. In Scotland 35 country parks are recognised and a large number of local authority and private sector schemes for the provision of a variety of countryside facilities have been approved for grant aid. The Commissions undertake research projects and experimental schemes, working in consultation with local authorities and such bodies as the Nature Conservancy Council (see p 206) and the Sports Councils. The Commissions give financial assistance to public, private and voluntary bodies and individuals carrying out countryside recreation and amenity projects, and landscape conservation projects. National Parks, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty and National Scenic Areas The Countryside Commission (for England and Wales) is empowered to designate, for confirmation by the appropriate minister, national parks and `areas of outstanding natural beauty'; to define heritage coasts in conjunction with local authorities (see p 204); and to make proposals for the creation of long-distance footpaths and bridleways. Ten national parks have been established, covering 13,600 sq km (5,250 sq miles), 9 per cent of the area of England and Wales, and 38 areas of outstanding natural beauty have been designated and confirmed, covering 19,300 sq km (7,450 sq miles). The land in these designated areas generally remains privately owned, but agreements or orders to secure additional public access may be made by local authorities. Steps are taken to preserve and enhance the landscape's natural beauty by high standards of development control, and by positive measures, for which grants are available, such as tree planting and the removal of eyesores. In the national parks other measures for the benefit of the public include the provision of car parks, camping and caravan areas, and information centres. All national parks and some other designated areas have warden services. Most local authority expenditure on national parks is met by government grants. A special statutory authority to manage the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads, long considered to be of equivalent status to a national park, was established in 1988. In Northern Ireland the Ulster Countryside Committee advises the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland on the preservation of amenities and the designation of areas of outstanding natural beauty. Eight such areas have been designated, covering 259,500 hectares (641,000 acres), and seven areas are being managed as country parks and one as a regional park. In Scotland there are no national parks as such, but there are three regional parks and 40 `national scenic areas', covering more than 1 million hectares (2.5 million acres), or 13 per cent of the country, where certain kinds of development are subject to consultation with the Countryside Commission for Scotland, and in the event of a disagreement, with the Secretary of State for Scotland. More than 98 per cent of the land in Scotland is designated countryside within which the Commission may provide grants for a wide range of countryside projects. There are 11 forest parks in Great Britain, covering some 244,000 hectares (603,000 acres) and administered by the Forestry Commission, and nine in Northern Ireland administered by the Forest Service of the Department of Agriculture. Camping and other recreational facilities are provided. Many voluntary organisations are concerned to preserve the amenities of the countryside; they include the Councils for the Protection of Rural England and of Rural Wales, the Association for the Protection of Rural Scotland and the Ulster Society for the Preservation of the Countryside. Public Rights of Way and Open Country County councils in England and Wales are required to prepare and keep under review definitive maps showing public rights of way; they are also responsible for keeping rights of way free from obstruction, and signposted. If a path is not shown on the map, a private citizen may claim that it is a public right of way if it has been regarded as such and used without hindrance for at least 20 years. Public footpaths are maintained by local authorities, which also supervise landowners' duties to repair stiles and gates. Local authorities in Great Britain can create paths, close paths no longer needed for public use and divert paths to meet the needs of either the public or landowners. Local planning authorities can also convert minor roads into footpaths or bridleways to improve the amenities of their area. In England and Wales there are some 217,000 km (135,000 miles) of rights of way. There are 13 approved long-distance footpaths and bridleways in England and Wales covering some 2,711 km (1,684 miles) and three approved long-distance routes in Scotland covering some 580 km (360 miles). Voluntary orgnisations concerned with footpaths include the Open Spaces Society, the Scottish Rights of Way Society and the Ramblers Association. There is no automatic right of public access to open country, although many landowners allow it more or less freely. Local planning authorities can secure access by means of agreements with landowners; if agreements cannot be reached, authorities may acquire land or make orders for public access. Similar powers cover Scotland and Northern Ireland. Common land, a large proportion of which is open to the public, totals an estimated 600,000 hectares (1.5 million acres) in England and Wales. (There is no common land in Scotland or Northern Ireland.) This land is usually privately owned, but people other than the owner may have various rights on or over it, for example, of pasture for farm animals. Commons are protected by law and cannot be built on or enclosed without the consent of the Secretaries of State for the Environment or Wales.