Identification - Unmistakable. Females are smaller than males and lack a mane. Males begin to show a noticeable mane growth at 1.5 years old which is fully developed by the time they are five or six. Some males never grow particularly fine manes and in certain areas they do not grow manes at all. Lions have a claw-like, horny spine in their tail-tuft. Sound of lion roaring (requires Safari CD-ROM to be inserted) Voice - Lions roar to mark their territory and as a contact call between pride members. In dry conditions a roar can be heard for up to three miles (5 km), and when the air is moist the sound travels even further, perhaps as far as five to six miles (8 to 10 km). They use a variety of sounds in aggressive situations, from a deep rumbling growl, to explosive grunts, snarls and hisses. A lioness calls her cubs with a soft, throaty, "eoawugh", repeated several times. Cubs grizzle and "eaow" repeatedly when distressed. Habitat - Lightly wooded country, rocky outcrops, thornbush, and thickets bordering open plains. Lions generally avoid densely forested areas. Habits - Nocturnal and diurnal, hunting mainly at night, dawn, and dusk. Lions are the exception among the cat family in that they are social, with adult males and females living together in groups called 'prides'. The core of each pride is a group of closely related females (usually two to six, sometimes up to 12) and their cubs, together with a coalition of two to four (up to six) mature males who are often closely related to each other (brothers and cousins), but not to the females. Lionesses usually remain in their natal pride for the whole of their lives. Young males are forced to leave their pride, usually when they are two or three years old, thereby preventing inbreeding. Until they are big and powerful enough to attempt to oust males from another pride, these young males must lead the life of nomads. Pride territories may be as small as 7.7 square miles (20 sq. km) in high density lion areas such as the Masai Mara, or as large as 154 sq. ml (400 sq. km) in marginal habitats such as parts of the Kalahari region in southern Africa, where prey is scattered and migratory. Young lionesses may also become nomadic, particularly if there are already a large number of adult lionesses in their pride. They, at times, manage to form a new pride by excising part of their natal territory and expanding into the periphery of other prides' territories. Lions mark their territory by roaring and scent marking with urine and anal gland secretions. Pride males rub their manes against bushes and spray them with urine. All pride members claw the trunks of trees leaving scent from their inter-digital glands, a habit that also helps to sharpen their claws. Serious fights over territory sometimes result in the death of a lion. When a coalition of new males ousts the existing pride males, there is often a lengthy transitional period within the pride. Small cubs are invariably killed by the new males, thereby ensuring that the lionesses quickly come into estrus again. This allows the new males to sire their own cubs rather than invest their time protecting the off-spring of the previous pride males. Lions spend 16 to 20 hours per day resting, usually in a shady place, thereby avoiding heat stress. If the grass is long or if they are unduly bothered by biting flies, they may climb into trees. Lions usually bolt when confronted by humans on foot, though females with young cubs can be particularly dangerous and may charge. Lions are stalkers, relying on stealth to get close to their prey (usually within 65 ft/20 m) before launching an attack. They reach speeds of 35 to 40 mph (50 to 60 km), though chases longer than 219 to 328 yd (200 m to 300 m) are rare. The lionesses do most of the hunting, but often have to give way to the males at a kill, particularly if it is a small prey animal such as a warthog. However, the pride males are more tolerant of the small cubs ,who are their off-spring, that might otherwise fair badly at a kill. Even so, starvation is the main cause of death among lion cubs, and together with predation and infanticide by nomadic males, accounts for a mortality rate of 50 to 60% during the first year. Though visitors are sometimes shocked by the bullying tactics of males at a kill, the division of labor within a pride does work to the advantage of the whole group. While the females hunt for prey, the pride males ensure the integrity of the territory, thereby helping to create optimum conditions for the lionesses to rear their cubs. Reproduction - A lioness usually has her first litter of cubs when she is three to four years old, producing a new litter of two to four cubs once every two years if the cubs survive. If a lioness' cubs die, she comes into estrus within as little as four weeks. However, if the cubs have been killed by nomadic males, it usually takes three months for the lioness to conceive, thus allowing time for the strongest coalition of males to assume control of the pride territory before she becomes pregnant. All of the members of the cat family are thought to be induced ovulators, with copulation helping to stimulate ovulation; a mating pair may copulate two to three times an hour for several days (usually two to six days). A lioness gives birth to her cubs in a place of concealment such as a thicket or rocky outcrop, where the cubs remain hidden for the first six to eight weeks. Cubs weigh 2.5 to 4.5 lb (1 to 2 kg) at birth, and their eyes open towards the end of the second week. Females with young cubs allow them to suckle communally; by doing so each lioness is promoting her own genetic interests by helping to raise her relatives off-spring. Cubs first eat meat at six weeks old and are weaned at six to eight months. They are reasonably competent hunters at two years old, but still rely on the pride for their survival, and continue to grow until they are at least four or five years old. Food - Prey selection varies according to habitat and season, with lions being capable of overpowering a wide variety of herbivores, including wildebeest, zebras, topi, hartebeest, warthogs, buffalo, giraffe, impalas and gazelles. Lions usually kill their prey by strangulation, though very large animals such as buffalo are suffocated by one of the lions clamping its jaws over the animals mouth and nose. When plenty of food is available lions gorge themselves, with males eating up to 90 lb (41 kg) on an empty stomach, while lionesses can consume 60 lb (27 kg). This is four to five times their average daily requirement, and is an adaptation to a feast or famine regime; predators can never be sure of when they will next eat. Predation - Old or sick lions are sometimes killed and eaten by hyenas. The young are preyed on by hyenas, leopards, and jackals.