Avoid marrying a foreign prince. Mary�s first marriage was to Francis Valois, who became King Francis II of France in July 1559, soon after their marriage. The Scots worried about France�s possible interference in Scottish affairs.

Maintain amiable relations with major religious leaders. Mary returned to Scotland in 1561, after the death of her husband in 1560. Protestantism had become Scotland's state religion in 1560, and the Protestant leader John Knox reigned as Scotland's most powerful political and religious leader. Knox considered Mary an enemy because she was Roman Catholic, and he was resentful and wary of the rule of a Catholic queen in Scotland.

Avoid marrying for love. In 1565, Mary fell in love with and married her cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Mary soon discovered that despite being well born and handsome, Darnley was weak, vain, and vicious, and she came to hate him.

Abandon intimate friendships with men after marriage. Mary greatly enjoyed the friendship of David Riccio, an Italian musician at her court. No evidence indicates that they were lovers, but Darnley accused Mary of adultery with Riccio. In 1566, he arranged for Riccio to be brutally murdered in front of Mary while she was pregnant.

Avoid bestowing favors on ambitious men. In an attempt to gain the Scottish throne, James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell, murdered Mary�s second husband, Lord Darnley. Scholars then believe he abducted Mary and forced her to marry him. However, Scotland was unwilling to accept him as king. Rebels imprisoned Mary, and Bothwell fled the country.

Avoid placing too much trust in sister queens. Escaping imprisonment in Scotland, Mary elected to put her trust in her cousin Queen Elizabeth and flee to England, when she could have gone to France. This was a grave error. Elizabeth, who saw Mary as a threat to her throne, imprisoned Mary.

Avoid becoming implicated in plots to assassinate one�s captor. Beginning in 1569, Mary supported a series of plots to overthrow Queen Elizabeth. In 1586, she became involved in a plot to assassinate Elizabeth and take the English throne. When the plot was discovered, Mary was put on trial for high treason, found guilty, and condemned to death.

Clothes Market advertisement

Overview: People living in England in the 1500's, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, would have found an on-line clothing catalog helpful. Assembling an outfit for a well-dressed Elizabethan could involve trips to many districts throughout London, each known for a different product. In addition to the jewelers, cappers, and shoemakers mentioned here, other specialized craftspeople included hosiers (who made stockings), silkwomen (who made ribbons and trims), glovers, pinners, embroiderers, and lacemakers. Some had their own shops, and some supplied goods to other vendors. Although Elizabethans bought accessories, undergarments, and fabrics in London's shops, they did not buy new gowns and suits. These garments were custom-made to an individual's measurements. People with enough money to pay a professional brought their fabrics to a tailor and specified the style they wanted. Others wore clothing made at home.

Go to The Clothes Market in Surf the Ages.

Glossary for Clothes Market

New clothes: A suit or gown represented a large investment, so even wealthy Elizabethans did not order new clothes often. One of Queen Elizabeth's noble ladies-in-waiting might have had four or five new gowns a year, including one or more castoffs from the queen. Lesser nobles might buy only one or two new suits or gowns annually. Because people could not replace their wardrobes frequently, most developments in fashion involved secondary parts of the outfit, such as undersleeves or trimmings, which were easy to modify. Out-of-fashion garments were often re-cut to the new style or taken apart so that the materials could be reused. Worn-out clothing often was given to servants or to charity. Sometimes, it was sold to used-clothing dealers, who resold it to people of lesser classes. More information is in the following World Book article: Clothing

Cheapside: London's Cheapside is known for costly imported fabrics, among other goods. The neighborhood got its name from the word "cheap," meaning simply "marketplace."

Budge Row, the street where the skinners and furriers work, is named for "budge," or woolly lambskin.

Bodies and farthingales are boned structures that shape a woman's silhouette. A "pair of bodies" smooths out the bust and torso so clothing lies neatly. A farthingale holds out the skirts. The cone-shaped Spanish farthingale was popular in the mid-1500�s. The French farthingale, which holds the skirt straight out from the waist, became popular in the 1580�s.

mercers and drapers: Mercers sell silks and imported fabrics. Drapers sell woolens, linens, and cottons.

doublets, jerkins, and hose: A man's suit consists of a doublet (a jacket with sleeves and an attached short skirt); hose (breeches of varying length, width, and cut); and a jerkin (a sleeveless jacket worn over the doublet).

gowns and petticoats: A lady's gown might consist of a bodice with an attached skirt, or it might be a single full-length garment without a waistline. Skirts may be open in front to show off decorative petticoats.

brooches: Both men and women may wear decorative pins, not only on their bodices or doublets but also on their ruffs or hats.

cauls and coifs: Cauls are hairnets, and coifs are linen caps worn beneath hats or headdresses.

Pantobles: are slip-on overshoes with platform soles, designed to protect delicate cloth shoes from the muck of the street.

exchange: London's Royal Exchange, a financial center, houses a shopping arcade called the Pawn. (A "pawn" is a covered walk lined with pillars.) The Pawn is a popular gathering place for fashionable society. In addition to vendors, service providers such as starchers and hairdressers operate stalls there.

pincushions and pincases: Ladies use many pins to hold together pieces of clothing and secure the draping of their skirts. Queen Elizabeth's wardrobe-keeper orders well over 200,000 pins a year, of various sizes and types.

Stockings are often sewn of silk, linen, or wool. Knit stockings, of silk or wool, are a recent innovation and very expensive.

Glasses are looking-glasses, or mirrors.

Masks and pomanders are used when walking in the city's streets. Masks shield the face from dust and wind; they also provide anonymity. Pomanders are decorative aromatic balls, held to the nose to mask unpleasant smells.

Poking-sticks are tools to shape the pleats in a ruff.

Tenochtitlan Causeway--Valley of Mexico

Overview: This fictional guide provides information on what life was like in the Mexica Empire in 1518, one year before Spanish explorer Hernando Cortes and his army marched into Tenochtitlan. Today, we know the Mexica as the Aztec, one of the most advanced peoples in the Americas during the 1400's and early 1500's. Cortes and his army destroyed the Aztec empire in 1521. But the Aztec left a lasting mark on Mexican culture.

13-Slate was the Aztec equivalent of 1518.

empire: At its height under Montezuma II, the Aztec empire encompassed much of central and southern Mexico, covering more than 125,000 square miles. The heart of the empire was the Valley of Mexico.

tlachtli: In this game, players tried to hit a large rubber ball through a high ring with their hips and knees. Scoring was so difficult that the game ended when either team scored. Sometimes, the captain of the losing team was sacrificed to the gods.

sacrifice: The Mexica believed that their gods needed human hearts and blood to remain strong. Sometimes, the Mexica ate part of a victim�s body to gain the dead person's strength and bravery.

Antwerp Emporium

Overview: Antwerp, in what is now Belgium, was Europe's major trading center from the 1400's to the mid-1500's. Although the particular market in this feature never really existed, the foods advertised were known in Europe in the late 1500's. The recipe for a chocolate drink is based on a recipe from Spain from the early 1600's.

More information on subjects mentioned in this imaginary site is in the following World Book articles: Antwerp | Belgium | Colonialism | Colonial life in America

Go to The Antwerp Emporium in Surf the Ages.

Glossary for Antwerp Emporium

Once introduced, some American foods immediately became popular in Europe. Others, like tomatoes and potatoes, did not catch on until the 1700's or later. Corn is still not as popular in Europe as it is in the Americas. Today, as in the 1500's, corn is used in Europe extensively as animal feed. Europeans still sometimes call it Indian corn, sweet corn, or maize to distinguish it from wheat, which they also call corn.

More information on subjects mentioned in this imaginary site is in the following World Book articles: Cacao | Turkey | Pineapple | Bean | Corn

Unlock Spain's chocolate recipe. For every hundred cacao beans, mix two pods of Mexican pepper or two Indian peppercorns, a handful of aniseed and two drams of cinnamon, a dozen almonds and as many hazelnuts, and half a pound of sugar. Boil in a pot of water, then strain and drink.

Book Makers

Overview: This fictitious Web site highlights several significant books of the 1500's. Among these were translations of the Bible from Latin into languages commonly used by people of that time. For centuries, the Vulgate version of the Bible, completed by Saint Jerome in A.D. 405, had been the standard version of the Bible used in the Roman Catholic Church.

The first complete English translation of the Bible appeared in the 1380's. This translation was made by John Wycliffe, an English priest, and his followers. In the 1520's and 1530's, the Englishman William Tyndale translated the Bible into English while living in Germany. The vigorous language of Tyndale's translation greatly influenced most later translations and revisions of the Bible in English.

The most influential English translation of the Bible was made in the early 1600's. In 1604, King James I of England authorized a committee of about 50 scholars to prepare a revision of earlier English translations of the Bible. The new version appeared in 1611 and became known as the King James, or Authorized, Version. The beauty and grace of the translation established the King James Version as one of the great treasures of the English language. In addition to its impact on religion, the King James Bible had enormous influence on language, writing styles, and literature in all English-speaking countries.

Go to Book Makers in Surf the Ages.

Glossary for Book Makers

Early papermaking: Paper as we know it today is made from a mixture of fibers and water that is filtered through a fine screen. The fibers tangle together and, once dry, form a sheet of paper. Papermaking was invented in China more than 2,000 years ago.

Andreas Vesalius: Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564), a Flemish anatomist and physician, made important contributions to the study of human anatomy. His book On the Structure of the Human Body, or Fabrica (1543), was the first manual of human anatomy with clear and detailed illustrations. Vesalius is often called the founder of human anatomy.

The Ramayana: The Ramayana is one of the two great epic poems of India. The other is the Mahabharata. Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, is a human form of the god Vishnu. In the Ramayana, he is the son and heir of an Indian king. The poet Valmiki supposedly wrote the first version of the Ramayana in Sanskrit about 500 B.C. or earlier.

Drama Tours Online

Overview: The growth of the European theater in the late 1500's was a direct result of the Reformation, a religious movement that began in the early 1500's and led to the rise of Protestantism. By promoting the use of national languages rather than Latin, the Reformation led to the development of national drama. By 1580, public theaters had opened in London and Madrid. Italy's first permanent theater, the Teatro Olimpico, opened in 1585.

Commedia dell' arte was the name given to boisterous Italian plays in which the actors improvised (made up) the dialogue as they went along.

Spanish theater: The late 1500's brought a burst of theatrical activity in Spain. The period between the mid-1500's and late 1600's was so productive that it is called the Golden Age of Spanish drama. The two greatest playwrights of the Golden Age of Spanish drama were Lope de Vega and Pedro Calderon de la Barca.

William Shakespeare (1564-1616), was an English playwright and poet. He is generally considered the greatest dramatist the world has ever known and the finest poet who has written in the English language.

Richard III is a history play that deals with the end of the Wars of the Roses. It opens with the hunchbacked Richard, Duke of Gloucester, confiding his villainous plans to gain the crown from his ill brother Edward IV. The character of Richard is a superb theatrical portrait of sly evil.

A Midsummer Night's Dream: This comedy is filled with delightful fantasy, with fairies as major characters. The characters include Oberon and Titania, the king and queen of the fairies, and the mischievous fairy Puck. A Midsummer Night's Dream includes some of Shakespeare's most richly descriptive poetry to date.

Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy. Two teen-aged lovers in Verona, Italy, are caught in a bitter feud between their families, the Montagues and the Capulets.

Notable Events of the 1500's

1. English fleet and bad weather cripple Spanish Armada. The failure of the Armada was a great blow to the prestige of Spain, then a powerful country in Europe. Spain remained a major power after the battle, but English merchants and sailors challenged the Spaniards with greater confidence throughout the world.

Philip II (1527-1598) was a Spanish king who ruled one of the largest empires ever created. Philip spent much of his reign at war defending his empire. Philip's many wars strained Spain's resources and contributed to its slow decline in the 1600's.

More information is in the following World Book articles: Spanish Armada | Philip II

2. Glory of Rome restored after 1527 raid. The looting of Rome in 1527 was the result of a rivalry between France and Spain over territory. In 1521, the first in a series of wars broke out between the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, who ruled Spain's lands as Charles I, and Francis I of France over rival claims for territory. Charles's troops looted Rome in 1527 and later took Milan and Sicily from France. By 1559, almost all of Italy was under the influence of Spain.

3. Protestant churches arise in Europe. The religious movement that came to be known as the Reformation led to Protestantism and had a tremendous impact on social, political, and economic life in Europe during the 1500's. The influences of the Reformation are still felt today. As a result of the Reformation, many Protestant groups developed in Europe. Authorities in the Roman Catholic Church responded to the Protestant challenge in two ways: (1) by defending Roman Catholic doctrine and defining it more precisely, and (2) by promoting serious reform effort in the Roman Catholic Church. This reaction is called the Counter Reformation or the Catholic Reformation.

Martin Luther (1483-1546) was the leader of the Reformation. Luther, a German theologian, taught that the Bible should be the sole authority in the church. He also taught that people are justified (made righteous in the eyes of God) solely through faith in Christ, apart from any works of their own. Although Luther did not intend to establish a new church, his theology led to beliefs and practices quite different from those of the Roman Catholicism of his day.

More information is in the following World Book articles: Reformation | Luther, Martin

4. Ottoman Empire continues to expand. The Ottoman Empire was at the height of its power during the 1400's and 1500's. But the beating back of Ottoman forces at Vienna, Austria, in 1529, and the defeat of the Ottoman fleet in the Battle of Lepanto near Greece in 1571 interrupted the growth of the empire. A second defeat at Vienna in 1683 ended the empire's territorial expansion. Suleiman I (1494-1566) became known in the Western world as "The Magnificent." However, his own people called Suleiman I "The Lawgiver." He was the 10th ruler of the Ottoman Empire. During Suleiman's rule, the empire was the richest and most powerful in Europe and the Middle East. Suleiman led armies into Hungary and stormed the walls of Vienna. In Asia, his armies invaded Persia (Iran) and captured Tabriz and Baghdad. Suleiman's fleets dominated the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf. His sailors held North Africa and raided the coasts of Spain, France, and Italy. Suleiman took Rhodes from the Knights Hospitallers (members of the religious and military Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem). He revised the legal system of the Ottoman Empire.

5. Spanish topple Aztec Empire. More information is in the following World Book articles: Aztec | Tenochtitlan | Mexico

6. Inca Empire falls to conquistadors. Spanish adventurers known as conquistadors (conquerors) defeated the large Indian civilizations of the Americas during the 1500's and gave Spain a firm hold on most of Latin America. The conquistadors led relatively small but well-equipped forces. They easily defeated large armies of Indians, who had never seen guns or horses. The conquistadors were often the first Europeans to enter the regions they conquered, and some settled in those areas.

More information is in the following World Book articles: Inca | Pizarro, Francisco | Latin America (History: The conquest of the Indians)

7. Mughal Empire takes over much of southern Asia. Akbar (1542-1605), was the greatest ruler of the Mughal Empire of India. During his 49-year reign, from 1556 until his death, he controlled most of north and central India and Afghanistan. He set up the governmental framework of the empire and organized new systems of coinage and taxation.

More information is in the following World Book articles: Mughal Empire | Akbar

8. New World populations devastated by disease. During the early 1500's, Spanish explorers pushed across most of Central and South America. They unintentionally brought with them smallpox and other diseases that were unknown in the Americas. As a result, thousands of Native Americans, who had no resistance to these diseases, became sick and died from them.

More information is in the following World Book article: Smallpox

9. Russia's Ivan IV terrorizes his people. Ivan and later czars passed a series of laws that bound the peasants to the land as serfs. Serfdom then became the economic basis of Russian power. At the same time in Western Europe, the growth of trade led to the use of money as royal payment and gradually led to the disappearance of serfdom in Western Europe.

More information on subjects mentioned in this imaginary site is in the following World Book articles: Ivan IV | Russia (History: Ivan the Terrible)

10. Earthquake rocks central China. China has suffered a number of devastating earthquakes over the years. A quake in 1731 in Beijing led to the deaths of 100,000 people. Two big ones in central China in the 1920's each brought about 200,000 deaths. Another 70,000 died in a quake in 1932. In 1976, a major earthquake struck northeastern China and 240,000 people died in the disaster. Experts say earthquakes almost never kill people directly. Instead, many deaths and injuries in earthquakes result from falling objects and the collapse of buildings, bridges, and other structures. Fire resulting from broken gas or power lines is another major danger during a quake. Spills of hazardous chemicals are also a concern during an earthquake.

More information on subjects mentioned is in the following World Book articles: Earthquake

About View from Today--Modern Times | Why Modern Times? | Site Map for Modern Times

The Town Crier (1600's)

This imaginary news site's name, The Town Crier, reflects a way that people got their news long ago. Before newspapers became common, villagers listened for the town crier, a person appointed to walk the streets announcing news and events. These "walking newspapers" were a fixture both in Europe and America in the 1600's, but they disappeared after newspapers became common in the 1700's. Today, some historic towns have revived the role for its entertainment value.

Go to The Town Crier in Surf the Ages.

Fontenay's Bookshop

Overview: Although the writings of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton were never offered as a boxed set in the 1600's, their work and discoveries formed the beginnings of modern astronomy. During the late 1500's and early 1600's, scholars and scientists increasingly realized the importance of experimentation and mathematics to scientific advances. Scientists began to make new discoveries based on their own observations and studies, rather than relying on traditional teachings. This helped bring about a revolution in science and our understanding of the universe.

More information on subjects mentioned in this imaginary site is in the following World Book articles: Copernicus, Nicolaus | Ptolemy | Galileo | Newton, Sir Isaac

Go to Fontenay's Bookshop in Surf the Ages.

Glossary for Fontenay's Bookshop

Copernicus and Kepler: Copernicus' book challenged Ptolemy's view that the earth was the center of the universe. Ptolemy's theory required a complicated series of circular motions to account for astronomers' observations of how the planets appeared to move. Copernicus realized that if the earth and other planets traveled around the sun, a less complicated arrangement of circles could explain the observed motions of the planets. But Copernicus' heliocentric (sun-centered) theory still did not accurately predict the motions of all the planets. During the 1500's, a Danish astronomer named Tycho Brahe observed the motions of the planets far more precisely than they had ever been observed before. Brahe's work enabled Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer and mathematician, to lend new support to the heliocentric theory in 1609. Kepler used intricate calculations to show that the theory could explain the movements of the planets if the planets orbited the sun in elliptical (oval) paths rather than circular ones. Kepler's work marked the start of modern astronomy.

Galileo: During the early 1600's, the great Italian scientist Galileo was the first person to use a telescope to study the sky. Galileo's observations helped confirm the Copernican system. For example, he found that several moons revolve around Jupiter. This discovery showed that, contrary to the theories of Aristotle and Ptolemy, not all bodies revolve around the earth.

Newton: Isaac Newton was born in England in 1642, about a year after Galileo died. Newton became the greatest scientist of his time. He discovered the law of gravitation and showed that it explains the motions of the planets and comets and the behavior of objects on the earth. According to this law, every object in the universe attracts every other object. The strength of the attraction between any two objects depends on their masses and the distance between them. Newton also discovered that visible light can be broken down into a spectrum. This laid the basis for the development of spectral analysis.

Ptolemy was one of the greatest astronomers and geographers of ancient times. Scholars believe he made his observations in Alexandria, Egypt, about A.D. 150. Ptolemy rejected the idea that the earth moves. He believed that the moon, sun, planets, and stars move around the earth at various rates of speed and that the stars were fixed points of light in a rotating sphere.

Iroquois Federation

Overview: In the 1600's, when an Iroquois nation wished to convene a council, it sent a runner to the next nearest nation. That nation, in turn, sent a runner to the next nearest nation, until all nations had been notified. Councils met at the wishes of the nations of the federation, rather than at regularly scheduled times. Any nation could summon the council. The convening nation then served as host. At the time of this imaginary council, the Iroquois faced fierce opposition from French colonists and their Indian allies in what are now Ontario and Quebec, Canada. In 1700, the Iroquois approached Governor Louis-Hecter de Calli�re of New France with a peace plan authored chiefly by Tenganissorens, a highly respected Onondaga political leader and a noted orator. The next year, the governor agreed to the plan, which also included an agreement with France's Indian allies. As a result of the treaty, the Iroquois were able to expand their hunting territory and their commercial activities with the French and other Indian groups. The treaty lasted until the end of the French and Indian War in 1763, when the French lost their land in what is now Canada and the United States.

More information on subjects mentioned in this imaginary site is in the following World Book articles: Iroquois | Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth | Song of Hiawatha, The

Go to Iroquois Federation in Surf the Ages.

Glossary for Iroquois Federation

Great Council: The Ongwanonhsioni held three main types of councils, though a single council could serve a combination of purposes. Mourning councils were convened to commemorate the death of a sachem, or council member, and to "raise up," or invest, a new member. Civil councils focused on relations with Indian nations outside the federation or with Europeans. They also provided a forum for discussions of issues involving the entire federation. Religious councils were held for the presentation of religious ceremonies. All questions before the council were decided by a "yes" or "no" vote, and all decisions required unanimous agreement. The sachems of each nation always voted as a bloc. Their vote was determined in caucuses held by each nation.

Ongwanonhsioni: The five Iroquois tribes in the federation called themselves the Ongwanonhsioni, which means We Long House Builders. The name refers to their dwellings, long rectangular structures in which from 6 to 10 families lived. A typical Iroquois village had from 30 to 150 such dwellings. The Ongwanonhsioni lived in the northern part of the Colony of New York.

Sachems: were the chiefs of the tribal clans who sat on the Council.

Raise up: The investiture ceremony is called "raising up."

The Elder Women: The elder women of the five nations choose the members of the Great Council. The elder women also may "take away a sachem's name," that is, remove him from office. Women were not permitted to sit on the Council, however.

New France was the French colonial empire in North America. It consists of three colonies: Canada, Acadia, and the extensive holdings in the Mississippi River Valley known as Louisiana.

Wars: In 1696, the Iroquois lost a number of battles to the French and an alliance of Algonquin Indians known as the Council of the Three Fires. This alliance was made up of the Ojibwa, or Chippewa; the Ottawa; and Potawatomi. In these battles, as many as 2,000 Iroquois were killed and many of their villages were destroyed. The Council of the Three Fires also drove the Iroquois out of their western homelands between Lakes Erie and Ontario and Lake Huron.

The Iroquois Indians formed a federation of tribes that once occupied upper New York state. From east to west, the tribes included the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. The federation was the most efficient North American Indian organization. The federation was formed by the early 1600's.

A Puritan Girl's Web site

Overview: Neither Elizabeth Latham nor her family were real people. But Elizabeth's thoughts and the details of her life -- as well as her name -- are typical of those of a Puritan girl in the American colonies during the mid-1600's. Puritans were members of a religious group that developed in England. Some Puritans departed England to settle in North America and founded Plymouth Colony in what is now Massachusetts in 1620. This group of Puritans is better known as Pilgrims. Many Puritans that came later settled in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The Puritans dressed plainly, lived virtuously, and worshiped faithfully. They valued learning and hard work. Many of these Puritan ideals live on in the fabric of American life.

More information on subjects mentioned in this imaginary site is in the following World Book articles: Iroquois | Massachusetts (Massachusetts Bay Colony) | Puritans

Go to A Puritan Girl's Web site in Surf the Ages.

Glossary for A Puritan's Girl Web site

land: Early settlements such as Dorcester grew from grants of land from the British Crown. Some of the land was reserved for public use. The rest was divided among the settlers, who received lots for a house, a garden, and fields to farm. Towns governed themselves. Most settlements had a grist mill to grind grain into flour or meal; a blacksmith to make and repair tools; a cooper to make barrels; and skilled carpenters and shoemakers.

head of my family: The father was the head of the Puritan household. The mother was his companion and helper. When the father was absent or ill, the mother could represent the family in financial dealings and other matters. She was bound to obey her husband, and he, in turn, was obliged to respect her. All members of a household worked for its well-being.

My father is many things. The Lantham family was of the "middling sort," neither rich nor poor. The middling sort farmed small holdings, ran shops and small businesses, or worked at ordinary skilled crafts, such as shoemaking or cabinetmaking. Men of the middling sort were entitled to vote, and some held minor public offices.

lace: Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay Colony dressed in bright colors, with lace collars and decorated hats. Laws, however, decreed what level of such finery was appropriate to individuals at different levels of society.

trade: Instead of money, American colonists used a variety of forms of payment for goods. They bartered for some local transactions. They also kept book accounts, which let people pay for goods and services over time with their own goods and services.

delivered: Skilled midwives delivered most babies. The few formally trained doctors tended to the sick rather than help women in their labor.

fever: Many colonists suffered or died from the Small-Pox, the Pestilence, the Distemper, the Fever, and the Consumption and other wasting diseases.

types of work: In the typical households like the Latham's, every member contributed to the family income. Some members would produce candles, cheese, cloth, soap, and other goods for the family. Many Puritan women also helped their husbands in the family shops. Like Rebecca, some women ran their own small businesses.

spinning: In most homes, women had the responsibility for making clothes, and they spent many hours at this task. They spun linen from flax and wool yarn from the fleece of sheep. They wove these materials into cloth to be made into clothing. They made dye from nuts, berries, roots, and bark.

cooking: Corn was one of the most common foods eaten by the colonists. Mush, hoecakes and other kinds of corn bread were made from ground corn meal. A dish called hominy was prepared by softening whole dried corn in lye or water to remove the hull. Succotash was created by combining corn and beans. The Colonist kept sheep and chickens. Hogs ran loose on the farm and in the countryside, eating what they can find. The Colonist butchered them for ham, bacon, fresh pork, and lard. Their bristles made fine brushes. Cattle and goats provided meat as well as milk for drinking. Women made butter and cheese from the milk. Men hunted turkey, deer, squirrel, and other game and catch fish in the streams and in the bay.

lessons: In 1647, the colony passed the first law in America requiring communities to establish public schools. The law states that every town with at least 50 families must start an elementary school and every town of at least 100 families must have a Latin grammar school. Colonial elementary schools taught religion, spelling, reading, writing, and arithmetic. Grammar schools prepared mainly boys for college. They offered lessons in religion, Latin and Greek, English composition, geography, and mathematics.

benefit to my Spirit: Elizabeth's attitude was typical of the Puritans, who glorified hard work. They also believed in strictness in morals and religious matters. Elizabeth would have attended church services with her family on Sundays. Sunday services included long sermons by the clergy and psalm singing by the congregation. Women of the middling sort, such as Elizabeth, sat behind the ladies of higher station. Men sat on the other side of the church. Before and after services, the members of the congregation visit and gossip with their friends and neighbors in the churchyard.

house: Most houses in the colonies had two rooms in front with a third running across the back. A second floor stood over the front two rooms. A brick or stone central chimney served two fireplaces that stood back to back. The fires provided heat and served for cooking. In most houses, they also provided the only light available after dark, as candles were extremely expensive.

sleep: Families slept on mattresses stuffed with straw or cornhusks. Their mattresses layed on a wooden frame strung with rope several feet off the floor. Younger siblings slept on movable beds called trundle beds, which were pulled out at night.

Shah builds his monument to love

Notable events of the 1600's

1. English civil war leads to political chaos Friction between English King Charles I and Parliament, England's lawmaking body, culminated in a civil war that first extended from 1642 to 1646 and reignited between April and November 1648. The civil war led to the overthrow of the monarchy and a series of political upheavals. The monarchy was restored in 1660 under Charles II, son of Charles I, but political and civil unrest continued. After the death of Charles II and the accession to the throne of his absolutist brother, James II, in 1688, Parliament invited William of Orange, ruler of the Netherlands, to take the throne in England and restore order. See the following World Book articles: Civil War, English | Charles I | James (James II) | Parliament | William III

2. Europeans colonize northern America Successful European efforts to colonize the northern regions of the Americas began in the first decades of the 1600's. The English established their first permanent settlement in America at Jamestown in 1607. Quebec, a French fur-trading post along the Saint Lawrence River, became an early permanent settlement of France's American colonial empire. The Dutch and Swedish also established colonial settlements in northern America in the 1600's. See the following World Book articles: Colonial life in America | Jamestown

3. Thirty-year war devastates Holy Roman Empire A series of religious and political wars raged across Europe from 1618 to 1648. The conflict began as a civil war between Protestants and Roman Catholics in central Europe's Holy Roman Empire and other territories. But before the war ended in 1648, it had become a general struggle for territory and political power. The war destroyed much of the Holy Roman Empire. See the following World Book articles:Thirty Years' War | Holy Roman Empire

4. Japanese rulers promote country's resurgence After many years of civil war, Japan entered a new period of peace in the 1600's under the Tokugawa shogunate. The first Tokugawa shogun came to power in Japan in 1603, limiting the emperor's power and influence. Entertainment and the arts have now begun to flourish in Edo, the shogunate political center. A strong work ethic among people from all walks of life is contributing to Japan's economic recovery. See the following World Book articles: Tokugawa, Ieyasu | Shogun | Japan (Tokugawa period)

5. Manchus overthrow Ming dynasty In 1644, invading Manchu people overthrew China's Ming dynasty and established the Qing dynasty in its place. Little has changed in Chinese life or government since the start of Manchu rule because the Manchus had already adopted many elements of Chinese culture before they gained control of the country. See the following World Book articles: Manchus | Ming dynasty | China (The early rule of the Manchus)

6. East India companies control most Asian trade Portugal, which once dominated most European trade with India and the East Indies, has been displaced by England and the Netherlands. English and Dutch East India companies formed in the early 1600's have seized many Portuguese holdings and have driven most Portuguese traders out of India. The struggle for control of trade in India now pits the Dutch against the English. See the following World Book article: Dutch East India Company

7. Slave trade on the rise in Americas The establishment of European farming and mining operations in the Americas has led to a huge increase in demand for African slaves. The European craving for sugar has prompted the rapid establishment of new sugar colonies and fueled expansion of the slave trade. See the following World Book articles: Slavery (Modern times) | African Americans (Colonial times)

8. Galileo's observations revolutionize understanding of planetary motion Through the innovative use of the telescope to study the sky, the Italian scientist Galileo made observations early in the 1600's that supported the theory that the earth is a moving planet. Proposed in the 1500's by the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, this revolutionary idea challenged long-held beliefs that the motionless earth is the center of the universe. See the following World Book articles: Galileo | Telescope | Copernicus, Nicolaus | Astronomy

9. Awesome building projects around the world Magnificent monuments of an immense size have been constructed in France, Italy, India, and Tibet. These grand buildings, which include the Palace of Versailles, St. Peter's Church, the Taj Mahal, and the Potala Palace, rank among the world's most beautiful structures. See the following World Book articles: Architecture | Versailles, Palace of | Taj Mahal

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The Coffee House (1700's)

Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: A Revolutionary Site

Overview: Members of the imaginary revolutionary organization called the Brothers of Liberty were inspired by the very real revolutions that took place in America and France during the second half of the 1700's.

More information on subjects mentioned in this imaginary site is in the following World Book articles: France (History: The French Revolution) | Marat, Jean-Paul | Robespierre | Danton, Georges-Jacques | Locke, John

Go to Liberty, Equality, Fraternity in Surf the Ages.

Glossary for Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: A Revolutionary Site

National Assembly: In June 1789, the representatives of France's third estate -- a social class that included peasants, the working people of the cities, and a large and prosperous middle class made up chiefly of merchants, lawyers, and government officials -- declared themselves the National Assembly of France. The other two estates, made up of nobles and clergy, joined later. By September 1791, the National Assembly believed that the revolution was over. It disbanded at the end of the month to make way for the newly elected Legislative Assembly.

Marat: Jean-Paul Marat, one of the most radical leaders of the French Revolution, added to the violence of the period by demanding death for all opponents of the revolution. In September 1792, he was elected to the National Convention, a body that was writing a new constitution for France. He joined a group called the Jacobins, who demanded that King Louis XVI be executed. Marat soon became the main target of moderate members of the convention, known as Girondists. In July 1793, Marat was stabbed to death by Charlotte Corday, an aristocrat who supported the Girondists.

Maximilien de Robespierre was one of the revolution's most powerful and radical leaders. Along with Georges-Jacques Danton and Jean-Paul Marat, he wais a leader of the Mountain, a radical group within the National Convention, a body that opened in 1792 and declared France a republic. The Mountain dominated a powerful political club called the Jacobin Club.

Citizen Danton: Georges-Jacques Danton was one of the revolution's most powerful and radical leaders. Along with Maximilien Robespierre and Jean-Paul Marat, he was a leader of the Mountain, a powerful radical group within the National Convention, a body that opened in 1792 and declared France a republic. Danton became France's most powerful national leader following the public uprising that forced King Louis from the French throne on August 10, 1792. With enemy armies of Austria and Prussia approaching Paris to restore the monarchy, Danton stirred people to action, declaring, "Boldness, more boldness, and still more boldness, and France will be saved!"

Sons of Liberty was a group of patriotic societies that sprang up in the American colonies before the Revolutionary War. They began as secret societies but later came into the open. They fought against the repressive economic measured imposed by the British, including the Stamp Tax of 1765, and opposed the importation of British goods after the passage of the Townshend Acts in 1767. They also led resistance to the Tea Act of 1773. They were active from South Carolina to New Hampshire.

Two Treatises of Government: John Locke declared that every person is born with natural rights that cannot be taken away. These rights include the right to life and to own property and freedom of opinion, religion, and speech. Two Treatises of Government argued that the chief purpose of government is to protect these rights. If a government does not adequately protect the citizens' liberty, they have the right to revolt. Locke's book strongly influenced Thomas Jefferson in the writing of the Declaration of Independence.

Diary of Jack Mulgrew, a Continental Soldier

Overview: The descriptions in the diary of the fictitious Jack Mulgrew are based on real accounts of the soldiers who fought for American independence from England during the Revolutionary War (1775-1783).

More information on subjects mentioned in this imaginary site is in the following World Book articles: Revolutionary War in America | Continental Congress | Cornwallis, Charles | Lafayette, Marquis de | Locke, John

Go to Diary of Jack Mulgrew in Surf the Ages.

Continental Army was the regular military force of the American Colonies and, after the colonies declared their independence from Britain, the United States during the Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was established on June 14, 1775.

The Continental Congress: From 1775 to 1781, the Second Continental Congress served as the national government of the American Colonies and, after independence, of the United States. The Second Continental Congress approved the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.

Cornwallis: Charles Cornwallis, the first Marquis Cornwallis, was second in command to General Henry Clinton, commander of the British forces in America.

Motley is a suit of more than one color worn by clowns.

Hasty pudding is cornmeal mush. During much of the campaign, food�not to mention clothing and other provisions�was in such short supply that the soldiers often had little more than cornmeal to eat.

The Marquis is the Marquis de Lafayette, commander of the French forces allied with the Americans. Lafayette helped lead American forces in 1781.

Redcoats: The British soldiers were known as redcoats because they wore bright red jackets. In contrast, Continental soldiers often wore their own clothes.

Gabions are wicker cylinders filled with earth, used as battlefield barricades. During lulls in fighting, soldiers were often put to work constructing gabions and other barricades.

Parallel line: According to the traditional rules of warfare, a siege is conducted from parallel trenches encircling the besieged fort or encampment. As the besieging army advances, its soldiers dig trenches increasingly closer to the enemy line. The final trench is dug close enough to the enemy�s encampment to serve as the starting point for an infantry attack.

Centennial of the Reign of Czar Peter

Overview: Peter I, the Great, was one of the most famous rulers in history. He ruled first as czar of Russia and later became Russia's first emperor. Peter transformed Russia from an isolated and backward country into a great European power. This fictitious site looks back on Peter's achievements from 1782, 100 years after he became emperor.

More information on subjects mentioned in this imaginary site is in the following World Book articles: Peter I | Russia (History: Peter the Great)

Go to Centennial of the Reign of Czar Peter in Surf the Ages.

Glossary for Czar Peter

Ivan V: Until 1689, Sophia, Peter�s half sister, ruled as regent for Ivan, who was in poor health. Sophia plotted to force Peter from the throne. But forces loyal to Peter rallied behind him. In late 1689, Peter had Sophia imprisoned for plotting against him. Out of affection for his half brother, Peter allowed Ivan to remain as co-ruler until Ivan�s death in 1689, though Ivan exercised little power.

Middle Ages: In the late 1600's, Russia had poor transportation systems and little industry. It was isolated from major trade routes by a ring of enemies, and it had no western access to the sea to facilitate overseas trade with the West. Imperial rule over the vast but sparsely populated land was difficult. The military was weak, and the government was corrupt and inefficient.

Reorganized Russia's government: Peter created a senate to supervise the Russian government. He also changed the system of appointment to high administrative or military office from one based on family background to one based on merit and seniority.

Dress, food, and customs: Peter introduced many Western European customs to the Russian aristocracy. For example, courtiers were strongly encouraged to discard their flowing Russian kaftans for the coats and trousers of the West. Noblemen, who mostly sported heavy beards, were told to shave their faces. Peter also expected noble gentlemen and ladies to learn Western table manners, dance, and other forms of social etiquette.

Moscow: Peter hated Moscow. It was there that, while a child, he witnessed the savage murder of his beloved uncles by supporters of his half sister Sophia. After this terror, he developed an uncontrollable spasmodic twitching of the left side of his face, which affected him throughout his life. To Peter, Moscow was dark and dirty, a medieval hovel for rebels, petty thieves, and murderers.

Notable Events of the 1700's

1. Seven-year war ravages Europe and changes balance of power overseas: Continental and overseas territorial disputes leading to an exhausting seven-year war pitted nearly every nation in Europe against another in the mid-1700's. The war involved North America as well as Europe, and its effects reached as far as India. At the war's end in 1763, a crippled France was forced to give up almost all its lands in North America to a triumphant Britain; France also suffered the loss of its possessions in India. See the following World Book articles: Seven Years' War| French and Indian wars

2. American Colonies win independence from Britain: Discontent with British colonial rule erupted into war in 1775 when American patriots clashed with British soldiers at Lexington, Massachusetts. The colonists declared their independence on July 4, 1776. The conflict lasted eight years. Despite huge British efforts to crush the revolution, the war came to an end in 1783, with the Americans the victors. See the following World Book article: Revolutionary War in America

3. Revolutionaries overthrow monarchy in France: In 1789, a bloody revolution broke out in France. The revolutionaries toppled the monarchy in 1792 and set up a republic. But political conflict, civil disorder, and violence continued in the country. In 1799, military hero Napoleon Bonaparte seized control of the government. Conflict-weary French reportedly look forward to stabilization under his leadership. See the following World Book articles: French Revolution | Napoleon I

4. Captain James Cook explores Pacific: Captain James Cook of the British Navy bravely journeyed into the Pacific three times during the 1760's and 1770's. His discoveries provided the British with much scientific information about the waters and islands of the Pacific. See the following World Book articles: Pacific Islands (Discovery by Europeans) | Cook Islands

5. Knowledge of the day published in Encyclopedie: In the middle to late 1700's, French authors Denis Diderot and Jean d'Alembert edited and compiled an impressive multivolume work known as the Encyclopedie. The books contain learned articles from writers in many different fields and cover the latest scientific discoveries of the day. The work has been welcomed by many rationalists, but some church and political leaders condemn the Encyclopedie because they say it contains dangerous revolutionary opinions. See the following World Book article: Diderot, Denis| Age of Reason (Influence of Age of Reason)| Encyclopedia

6. Major scientific advances achieved: Through careful experimentation and observation, scientists made a number of revolutionary advances in the 1700's. One of the most significant discoveries was made by French chemist Antoine Lavoisier. Lavoisier demonstrated the nature of combustion, or burning, showing it to be the result of the rapid union of oxygen, a newly discovered gas, with a flammable substance. See the following World Book articles: Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent| Chemistry (Lavoisier's contributions)| Combustion

7. Power-driven machinery brings growth to textile industry: The introduction of power-driven machinery has resulted in the rapid growth of the textile industries of England and Scotland. This new machinery has greatly increased the amount of goods that factories are able to produce and is being adopted by cloth makers in other countries. See the following World Book article: Industrial Revolution

8. Ancient Roman riches unearthed near Vesuvius: In 1738, the government of Naples began an extensive excavation project to uncover the treasures of legendary ancient Roman cities in the area. The cities were covered by volcanic debris after the eruption of Vesuvius centuries ago. Digging at the sites has been slow, but excavators have begun to uncover some magnificent statues from Roman times. Concern about possible theft of the ancient objects has prompted increased vigilance around the sites. See the following World Book article: Vesuvius | Pompeii | Herculaneum | Volcano

9. Peter the Great westernizes Russia: Peter I, czar of Russia, made efforts to westernize Russia in the 1700's. Czar Peter, called the Great, was profoundly influenced by ideas of commerce and government current in Western Europe. He brought to Russia Western experts in areas such as architecture, art, engineering, and science to influence Russian development. Peter also introduced Western-type clothing, factories, and schools in Russia. See the following World Book article: Peter I

10. Development of a practical steam engine: Scottish engineer James Watt made significant improvements to steam engine design in the late 1700's. Industry leaders have shown interest in the engine, saying the new design increases engine power and the number of its uses. See the following World Book articles: Steam engine| Watt, James

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The Daily Dispatch (1800's)