Political conflict

At the beginning of the 1800's, Europe experienced chaos, as General Napoleon Bonaparte fought to extend French control to Spain, Portugal, Italy, Germany, and even Russia. The colonies of Spain and Portugal in America took advantage of the confusion and declared their independence. Later in the century, nationalist and ethnic loyalties fueled conflict throughout much of Central and Eastern Europe.

Industrialization

Despite the internal turmoil, the international influence of Europe grew rapidly during the 1800's. European manufacturers adopted efficient techniques of industrial production, which provided them with economic and military strength. By mid-century, European powers had begun to claim colonies in Asia, Africa, and Oceania. Britain colonized India in the 1850's, and by the 1880's had established a nearly continuous string of African colonies from Cairo, Egypt, to the Cape of Good Hope in southern Africa. Imperialists in France, Germany, Belgium, the United States, and Japan also staked out areas of influence around the world.

Declining powers

China, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire did not become European colonies. But all three powers declined rapidly as European societies underwent industrialization. As the century draws to a close, it is not clear how long the leaders of China, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire will be able to hold their lands together.