Kitab al-Ibar (or, Book of Examples) by Ibn Khaldun

(7 volumes, also known as Universal History. Full set includes the introductory volume, called The Muqaddima, originally written in the 1370's.)

Ibn Khaldun knows that from sultans to people in the street, everyone seeks to know history. But many gossips spread untrue stories about the past, and "the pasture of stupidity is unwholesome to mankind."

Ibn Khaldun's introductory volume, The Muqaddima, describes how to compare accounts of an event to reveal the truth. It describes a "new science of civilization" and asks such questions as:

  • How has environment influenced people?
  • Why do people join to make societies?
  • What forces in society cause dynasties and empires to rise and fall in ongoing cycles?


In his Autobiography, Ibn Khaldun recounts his experiences as a scholar and diplomat in northern Africa. Highlights include his meeting with the dreaded Mongol conqueror Timur.