About View from Today--Ancient Times. Each Web site in Surf the Ages has its own section in View from Today. Here, you'll find out what's real and what's imaginary and get today's perspective on the events, people, and places described. In each View box, you'll also find links to additional information in World Book articles and their related information.

Why Ancient Times? In Ancient Times, people first began making records of events. The first great civilization was Sumer, in the Middle East, where writing was invented and history literally began. Civilization and knowledge developed in many other parts of the world, including Africa, Asia, and Europe. In time, the Roman Empire grew, and took over other civilizations. Many historians regard the fall of the West Roman Empire, in the late A.D. 400's, as marking the end of Ancient Times. The Gupta Empire in India ended at about the same time.

Site Map for View from Today--Ancient Times

The Sumer-Egypt Sun (3500 B.C. to 31 B.C.)

Ramses the Great Dies

Akhenaten: The Rising of the Sun

The Greek Journal (3000 B.C. to A.D. 300's)

The Academy of Plato

The 130th Olympic Games

The India Pictograph (2500 B.C. to A.D. 500)

Mohenjo-Daro's Great Plan

The Roman Forum (700's to A.D. 400's)

Vesuvius Blows its Top

 

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Ramses the Great Dies | Akhenaten: The Rising of the Sun

The Sumer-Egypt Sun

An imaginary news site, the Sumer-Egypt Sun focuses on two great civilizations--Sumer in southern Mesopotamia (now southeastern Iraq), and Egypt in northeastern Africa. Sumer was the first civilization, developing from about 3,500 B.C., and recording its history in written documents. Sumerians invented cuneiform writing, forming documents by pressing a tool into clay tablets. The tablets were then dried and hardened in the sun. The sun--called Aten--was one of the gods of Ancient Egypt. Under the rule of Pharaoh Akhenaten, for a brief period the sun was the chief god.

Go to The Sumer-Egypt Sun in Surf the Ages.

More information on subjects mentioned in this imaginary site is in the following World Book articles: Egypt, Ancient | Sumer

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Ramses the Great Dies

Overview: Ramses II ranks as one of ancient Egypt's greatest ruler. He devoted most of his reign to a spectacular building program that included the construction of a massive double temple at Abu Simbel in ancient Nubia (now southern Egypt). His most famous monument, however, is his funeral temple, called the Ramesseum, in Thebes. The temple featured a 55-foot (17-meter), 1,000-ton seated statue of Ramses. The head and torso of the statue can still be found in the ruins of the temple.

In the first century B.C., 1,100 years after Ramses's death, the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus described the temple, incorrectly calling it the "tomb of Ozymandias." The base of the statue, Diodorus reported, contained this inscription:

"I am Ozymandias, King of kings.
If anyone would know how great I am and where I lie,
let him surpass any of my works."

In 1818, nearly 1,900 years later, the temple inspired the English lyric poet Percy Bysshe Shelley to write the poem "Ozymandias," which contains the famous lines:

"Nothing beside remains. Round the decay
Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare,
The lone and level sands stretch far away."

Go to Ramses the Great Dies in Surf the Ages.

More information on subjects mentioned in this imaginary site is in the following World Book articles: Abu Simbel, Temples of | Egypt, Ancient (The New Kingdom) | Mummy | Ramses II . Intrepid students may also follow up by viewing the animation in the Mummy article on "How ancient Egyptians mummified their dead."

Glossary for Ramses the Great Dies

Ostracon: Papyrus, a writing material developed in Egypt from plant fibers, was so time-consuming to produce that it was generally used only for official documents and religious texts. Everyday writing was done on flat pieces of pottery or limestone called ostraca, ostracon in the singular.

Kemet: The ancient Egyptians called their country Kemet, meaning Black Land, after the dark soil.

Piramesse: Ramses established his capital about 71 miles (114 kilometers) northeast of the modern city of Cairo on the site of a smaller city that he renamed Piramesse, or "House of Ramses." In 1998, archaeologists excavating at Piramesse discovered the remains of Ramses's royal stables, the oldest and best-preserved stables ever found in the Middle East. The building housed about 460 horses, which were used for warfare, hunting, and recreation.

senet was an ancient Egyptian board game similar to backgammon.

beer, made from barley, was the favorite drink of ancient Egyptians.

Isis: The most popular goddess in ancient Egyptian mythology, Isis was worshiped as the protector of the dead and as the divine mother. She was the wife and sister of Osiris, king of the underworld.

Nephthys was the sister of Isis, the wife of Osiris, the king of the underworld. She helped protect the dead.

gums: Scientific studies of Ramses's mummy, discovered in 1881, revealed that he had suffered from dental abscesses and gum disease before his death.

Osiris was the king of the underworld. Ancient Egyptians believed that after death the pharaoh became Osiris.

children: Ramses had at least 90 children by his many wives. Twelve of his sons and heirs died before he did. In 1995, archaeologists opened a tomb in the Valley of the Kings believed to be a mausoleum for Ramses's sons. The largest royal tomb ever found in Egypt, the mausoleum contains at least 67 burial chambers.

Nefertari: The favorite wife of Ramses II, Nefertari also played an important role at the Egyptian court. Her tomb in Thebes is considered one of the most beautiful of all ancient Egyptian tombs. From 1986 to 1992, the paintings in the tomb, severely damaged by humidity, salt, and flooding, were cleaned, and conditions were improved. The tomb was reopened in 1995.

Khaemwaset: The fourth son of Ramses, Khaemwaset was the high priest of Ptah, a god of creation. Khaemwaset, reported to have been a great magician, also studied and restored a number of royal monuments.

Ptah: One of the main gods of ancient Egypt, Ptah was a god of creation, worshiped chiefly in Memphis.

Merneptah: Named pharaoh at about age 60, Merneptah was the 13th son of Ramses II, who outlived the first 12 of his sons and heirs. A black granite monument found at Merneptah's funeral temple in 1896 contains the earliest known reference to Israel in Egyptian sources. The inscription boasts that in the fifth year of his reign Merneptah "laid waste" to Israel.

Re, also known as Ra, was the sun god in Egyptian mythology. By 2500 B.C., Egyptians regarded Re as their chief god. From that time, every Egyptian king was given the title "son of Re."

Ma'at: The goddess of truth and order, Ma'at wore the Feather of Justice used to judge the souls of the dead.

sekhem: An individual's power.

Heka: The god Heka represented magical powers, a gift of Re, the sun god.

sed: A pharaoh usually held his first sed festival, or royal jubilee, in the 30th year of his reign and then every few years afterward. The festival reaffirmed the pharaoh's authority and renewed his powers. Ramses II held an unprecedented 14 sed festivals.

Nubia: A region of ancient Africa, Nubia covered part of what is now Sudan. The Nubians were controlled by Egyptian rulers at times from about 2000 to 1000 B.C. The Egyptians regarded Nubia as a source of gold and as a trading center for cattle, ivory, and slaves.

Amon became the most important god in ancient Egyptian mythology. Amon gained his greatest importance during the period of the New Kingdom (1554-1070 B.C.), when Thebes, his home city, was the capital of Egypt. The Egyptians eventually identified Amon with the sun god Re to create a new deity called Amon-Re, who was known as King of the Gods.

Thebes: In ancient Egypt, Thebes was a major religious center and the birthplace of many kings. It was located along the Nile River at the site of what is now the city of Luxor.

Abu Simbel: The temples' original location is now covered by Lake Nasser, formed by the construction of the Aswan High Dam. In the mid-1960's, an international team of scientists and workers cut the temples into thousands of huge blocks and moved them to higher ground, where they were reassembled.

39 cubits tall: The statues were about 67 feet (20 meters) tall.

onomastica: Long lists of topics by category, such as gods, animals, and foods, made for purposes of classification.

Hittites: The Hittites were the earliest known inhabitants of what is now Turkey. They began to control that area about 1900 B.C. By 1500 B.C., the Hittites had become a leading power in the Middle East.

Pentaur: Once thought to be the ancient author of this historical inscription about Ramses's exploits at Kadesh, Pentaur was later identified as a scribe who had written out one particular copy of the text.

vanquished: In 1285 B.C., in one of the greatest battles of ancient times, Ramses and his Egyptian forces fought the Hittites for land the Hittites had seized from Egypt. The two armies met at Kadesh on the Orontes River, north of Palestine. Ramses claimed a great victory, though, in fact, neither side won. About 1269 B.C., Ramses made a treaty with the Hittite king that divided the disputed land between them and sealed the treaty with his marriage to a Hittite princess.

baal was a chief god of the ancient Canaanites, the chief inhabitants of an area later known as Palestine, until about 1200 B.C. The name generally refers to the Canaanite storm god, who supposedly brought rain to make the soil fertile.

Valley of the Kings: The Valley of the Kings is a rocky, narrow gorge that was used as a cemetery by the pharaohs of ancient Egypt between 1550 and 1100 B.C. The Valley, sometimes called the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings, lies on the west bank of the Nile River across from Luxor. Over 60 tombs have been discovered in the Valley of the Kings and in the adjoining Western Valley.

canopic jar: A ceremonial vase used in ancient Egypt, chiefly for holding the entrails of embalmed bodies.

shrouds: A shroud is a cloth used to wrap a body for burial.

Ka: In ancient Egyptian theology, the Ka was a spirit and a "double" for the person who inhabited the body during life. Although the Ka left the body in death, it returned after proper embalming and burial.

Ba: In ancient Egyptian theology, the Ba was a "soul" that inhabited the body during life but was not attached to it. At death it left the body but later returned.

3 1/3 cubits: The royal cubit of the ancient Egyptians was about 20 3/5 inches (52.3 centimeters) long. According to measurements of his mummy, Ramses was about 5 feet 8 inches (173 centimeters), one of the tallest pharaohs.

henna is an orange-red dye obtained from the leaves of a small shrub.

sarcophagus: A sarcophagus is a stone coffin. The oldest known Egyptian stone sarcophagus dates from about 2500 B.C.

Land of the dead: The land of the dead, also known as the Land of Eternity and the Field of Reeds, was the ancient Egyptians' name for the afterlife. They believed the afterlife was a continuation of one's existence before death. For this reason, food, furniture, clothing, and other items were placed in tombs for the dead person's use in the afterlife. The tombs of some Egyptians also had statues representing servants who would care for them in the next world.

Negative Confession: The Negative Confession was the first stage in the judgment of a soul to determine whether that soul could enter the afterlife. The confession, held in the Hall of Judgment, consisted of a series of negative statements made by the deceased concerning his or her behavior in life. Osiris was present, along with 42 other gods that acted as judges.

Feather of Truth: During the Judgment of the Dead, the heart of the deceased was weighed against the Feather of Truth, which represented Ma'at, the goddess of order, truth, and harmony. If the heart was lighter than the feather, or if they balanced, the deceased's soul was allowed to enter the afterlife.

Ammit: Also known as the Eater of the Dead, Ammit devoured souls judged unworthy to enter the afterlife. Ammit was a demon with the head of a crocodile, the body of a lion or leopard, and the hindquarters of a hippopotamus.

Akhenaten: The Rising of the Sun

Overview: Although this Web site of the 18th Dynasty is fictitious, the events described there accurately reflect the startling changes Pharaoh Akhenaten and Queen Nefertiti imposed on Egypt 3,400 years ago. The pharaoh built a magnificent new capital at Amarna and named it Akhenaten. The pharaoh's religious reforms, which some historians call the Amarna Revolution, led to an outpouring of art and sculpture created in a style radically different from the artistic style that had dominated Egypt for centuries.

Akhenaten's revolution lasted less than 20 years. During his lifetime, many Egyptians, from all segments of society, bitterly opposed his efforts to replace the worship of Amon-Re, formerly Egypt's state religion, with a new religion. Soon after his death in 1350 B.C. , the city of Akhetaten was abandoned. Tutankhamen, who took the throne in about 1347 B.C, restored the old religion, though he also allowed the worship of the Aten. Later pharaohs, however, toppled statues and monuments to the Aten and Akhenaten, dismantled Akhenaten's temples and palaces, and tried to erase every record of Akhenaten and Nefertiti.

Go to Akhenaten: The Rising of the Sun in Surf the Ages.

More information on subjects mentioned in this imaginary site is in the following World Book articles: Akhenaten | Egypt, Ancient (The New Kingdom) | Nefertiti | Tutankhamen.

Glossary for The Rising of the Sun

Dynasty: A series of rulers in the same family.

Upper and Lower Egypt: Before 3100 B.C., ancient Egypt consisted of two kingdoms-Lower Egypt in the area of the Nile Delta and Upper Egypt in the south. Egyptian civilization began about in 3100 B.C., when, according to tradition, King Menes of Upper Egypt conquered Lower Egypt. He then united the country and formed the world's first national government.

beloved by the Aten: A wish formula that often followed the written name of an ancient Egyptian king.

Thebes was located along the Nile River at the site of what is now the city of Luxor. The city was a major religious center in ancient Egypt and its capital at times. Thebes was a village of little importance until a Theban prince of Dynasty XI became king of Egypt in 2052 B.C. Beginning at that time, the sun god Amon-Re, who was associated with Thebes, became the most important god in Egypt.

may he live, prosper, and be in health: A wish formula that often followed the written name of an ancient Egyptian king.

Die: These prayers are based on "The Great Hymn to Aten," often credited to Akhenaten.

bestowed with eternal life: A wish formula that often followed the written name of an ancient Egyptian king.

Pharaoh: Sometime between 1554 B.C. and 1304 B.C., the ancient Egyptians began to call their king pharaoh. The word pharaoh comes from words that meant great house in Egyptian.

Akhetaten is now known as Tell el-Amarna, after the name of a nearby village. Historians call Akhenaten's religious movement the Amarna Revolution.

ankh: A t-shaped cross with a loop at the top, symbolizing life and rebirth in Egyptian art and mythology.

Ankhsenpaaton: The third daughter of Akhenaten and Nefertiti, Ankhsenpaaton married the now famous Tutankhamen, who may have been her half-brother. Some historians believe that after Tutankhamen's death, Ankhsenpaaton asked the king of the Hittites, Egypt's chief enemy, to send a prince to marry her and rule over Egypt. The prince was reportedly ambushed and murdered on his way to Egypt. Ankhsenpaaton's fate is unknown.

two huge statues: These statues are known today as the Colossi of Memnon.

Queen Tiye: The daughter of an officer in Egypt's chariot division, Tiye became the chief queen of Amenhotep III and the mother of Akhenaten. She died in or shortly after the 14th year of Akhenaten's reign.

Meketaton: The second daughter of Akhenaten and Nefertiti, Meketaton died in about the 14th year of her father's reign when barely a teenager. She was buried in a side chamber of the Royal Tomb at Akhetaten. Scenes on the walls there suggest that she died giving birth.

Prince Tutankhaton: The identity of the parents of the legendary Tutankhaton (who changed his name to Tutankhamen after he became the pharaoh) remains a mystery. Some scholars believe he was the son of Akhenaten and Kiya, a lesser wife with the title of "Greatly Beloved Wife." Others have suggested that he was the son of Amenhotep III and, thus, Akhenaten's half-brother. Tutankhamen also became the husband of Ankhsenpaaton, the third daughter of Akhenaten and Nefertiti.

heretic priests: The priests of Amon-Re bitterly opposed Akhenaten's attempts to establish the Aten as the supreme god of Egypt.

boundaries: The pharaoh established the northern and southern boundaries of Akhetaten with two stelae cut into the cliffs that surrounded the site. The imaginary line between the two established an axis along which all the temples were aligned. Halfway between the two stelae, Akhenaten established the city's first altar to the Aten.

stelae: Upright slabs or pillars of stone bearing an inscription or sculptured design. The stelae at Akhetaten include dedications to the Aten as well as a list of buildings Akhenaten intended to build there.

7 miles: 11 kilometers

3 miles: 5 kilometers

33 feet by 13 feet: 10 meters by 4 meters

North Riverside Palace: The North Riverside Palace probably served as the royal family's chief residence. Archaeologists have only partly excavated this building, however, and its purpose has not been established definitively.

keeping animals: Some scholars believe this area may have been a royal zoo.

2,500 feet long and 750 feet wide: 765 meters long and 230 feet wide

construction system: Akhenaten's engineers eliminated the use of huge blocks of stone for construction. Instead, they used standardized blocks, known to modern scholars as talatat, that could be carried by one person. Talatat measured about 20 inches (50 centimeters) long, 10 inches (25 centimeters) wide, and 10 inches (25 centimeters) high.

162,000 square feet: 15,500 square meters.

House of the Correspondence of the Pharaoh: Scholars identified this building by means of inscriptions found on several of its bricks. The building housed diplomatic letters sent to Akhenaten.

Thutmose, Akhenaten's master sculptor, is often credited with creating a bust of Nefertiti that is one of the most famous pieces of ancient Egyptian art. German excavators found the bust in the ruins of his workshop in 1912.

poet: Akhenaten is often credited as the author of "The Great Hymn to Aten," a lyrical prayer praising the god of creation and his works. Modern scholars have no proof of his authorship, however.

reliefs: Figures or designs that stand out from the surface from which they have been cut, shaped, or stamped.

curved Images of Akhenaten often show him with a full belly and thighs and a thin, bent neck, a radical departure from the traditional style of depicting the pharaoh. Akhenaten's appearance in art has caused endless debate. Some scholars have speculated that he suffered from a physical condition that resulted in his unusual appearance. Others, however, contend that his appearance reflected his goal of establishing a more realistic style of art.

their action: The specific acts of opposition by the priests of Amon-Re remain unknown to modern scholars. But Akhenaten wrote in an inscription that the situation was worse that anything he or his ancestors had experienced.

King Tushratta of Mitanni: The ruler of a kingdom in what is now Syria, Tushratta had a close diplomatic relationship with Amenhotep III. In return for Egypt's financial support, Tushratta helped guard Egypt's northern border against the Hittites. The Hittites, the earliest inhabitants of what is now Turkey, had become a major power in the Middle East by 1500 B.C. Tushratta's letter to Queen Tiye was found in the House of the Correspondence of the Pharaoh. Neglected by Akhenaten, Mitanni was conquered by the Hittites, and Tushratta was assassinated by a son in about 1360 B.C.

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The Sumer-Egypt Sun | The Greek Journal | The India Pictograph | The Roman Forum

The Academy of Plato | The 130th Olympic Games

The Greek Journal

This imaginary news site focuses on Ancient Greece, which many historians regard as the start of modern, Western civilization. Organized, systematic thought is one of the great legacies of ancient Greek culture. The Greek Journal aims to convey the nature of organized thought about history and other topics which developed in Ancient Greece. It ranges from about 3000 B.C., when Greek civilization started on the island of Crete, to the A.D. 300's, when a great Greek cultural festival--the Olympic Games--ended.

Go to The Greek Journal in Surf the Ages.

More information on subjects mentioned in this imaginary site is in the following World Book articles: Greece, Ancient | Crete (History) | Olympic Games (The ancient games)

The Academy of Plato

Overview: The Academy, in Athens, was one of the earliest centers for higher education. Founded in 387 B.C. by the great Greek philosopher Plato, it existed for more than 900 years. In A.D. 529, the Academy, as well as all other schools of philosophy in Athens, were closed by Justinian I, an orthodox Christian ruler of the Byzantine Empire. Justinian accused the schools of teaching paganism.

Much of Plato's work incorporates the views and philosophic style of Socrates, his friend and fellow philosopher. A highly original thinker, Socrates became the first philosopher to focus on a consideration of moral problems and how people should best live their lives. Unfortunately, Socrates engaged his fellow Athenians in extended conversations often exposed the confusion and contradictions in their moral beliefs. Unfortunately, this practice earned him widespread hostility. Socrates also antagonized Athenian political leaders by criticizing some aspects of the city's democratic system.

In 399 B.C., an Athenian court condemned Socrates to death for rejecting Greece's established religion and for corrupting the young by teaching them to question values accepted by society. Although he could have escaped from prison, Socrates calmly accepted his death sentence as a moral obligation.

Go to The Academy of Plato in Surf the Ages.

More information on subjects mentioned in this imaginary site is in the following World Book articles: Aristotle | Greece, Ancient | Philosophy | Plato | Socrates

Glossary for The Greek Journal

Plato, who lived from about 427 to about 347 B.C., was one of the most important thinkers and writers in the history of Western culture.

Socrates, who lived from about 470 to 399 B.C., ranks as one of the most original, influential, and controversial figures in the history of Western thought. He became the first philosopher to make a clear distinction between body and soul and to place higher value on the soul.

Athens: During the 400's B.C., Athens became the most successful democracy of ancient Greece as well as the world's most powerful and highly civilized city.

rhetoric: The art of using words in speaking or writing to persuade or influence others.

dialogues: A literary work structured as a conversation between two or more people. Plato's dialogues are actually dramas that are concerned primarily with the presentation, criticism, and conflict of philosophical ideas. The characters in his dialogues discuss philosophical problems and often argue the opposing sides of an issue.

planets: The Greeks named seven planets. The Sun and moon were set apart as the "greater" planets. Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn were the "lesser" planets. (Earth was not a planet, but the center of the universe.)

Aristotle: Plato recognized Aristotle, who lived from 384 to 322 B.C., as the Academy's brightest and most learned student, calling him the "intelligence of the school."

Socratic method: The question-and-answer method used by Socrates to get a definition or precise view of some abstract idea. It became the model for philosophic methods that emphasize debate and discussion.

women: Very few girls in ancient Greece attended school, but some others learned to read at home.

sophists: Sophists traveled from city to city teaching young adults for pay in the city-states of Greece during the second half of the 400's B.C. Their main subject was persuasive public speaking, though they also taught grammar, political theory, and many other subjects. They also claimed to teach virtue, which they defined as being successful in the world.

Volume kappa, number eta: Volume 2 number 8 is expressed using the Greek letters kappa and eta. Number 8 would have been the letter eta using the ancient Greek numeration system. This system used the first 9 letters of a 27-letter Greek alphabet for the numbers 1 through 9. The next 9 letters stood for tens, from 10 through 90. The last 9 letters were symbols for hundreds, from 100 through 900. Arithmetic was almost impossible using this system.

city: Socrates taught in the streets, marketplace, and gymnasiums of ancient Athens.

Oracle, in the ancient Greek world, referred to a shrine where people came to seek advice from prophets or prophetesses. These sacred persons were believed to have the power to reveal the will of the gods and to foretell the future. The word oracle also refers to the prophet and prophetess and to their prophecy.

Delphi: A town situated on the southern slope of Mount Parnassus that had the oldest and most influential religious sanctuary in ancient Greece.

Aristophanes: The greatest ancient Greek writer of comedy, Aristophanes wrote some of the earliest and best examples of political and social satire.

piety: The quality or character of having reverence for God (or the gods) and a devotion to religion.

Agora The open area at the center of a Greek city that served as a marketplace and meeting place.

Men only: The ancient Greek city-state of Sparta was the only place where girls engaged in physical competition, an idea shocking to other Greeks in Plato's time.

The 130th Olympic Games

Overview:

The first Olympics were held in 776 B.C. In ancient Greece, announcements of upcoming Olympic Games were spread by messengers wearing wreaths of olive branches, not through the Internet, as presented in this imaginary Web site. Like the modern Games, the ancient Olympics aimed to promote unity among political groups as well as the competitive spirit and physical accomplishments. And like the modern Games, the ancient Olympics were marred by commercialism, bribery, political rivalry, and even acts of violence.

Perhaps the main difference between the ancient and modern Games was religion. For the ancient Greeks, the competitions were the central element in their most important religious festival, held to honor Zeus, the king of the gods. Over time, however, competitors came to view their victories as a personal accomplishment rather than as a sign of the gods' favor.

After the Romans conquered Greece in the 140's B.C., slaves and gladiators replaced the amateur athletes who originally had dominated the Games. Finally, in A.D. 393, the Roman Emperor Theodosius I abolished the Olympics as part of his campaign to ban all pagan (non-Christian practices) from the Empire.

In 1875, archaeological excavations at Olympia inspired Baron Pierre de Coubertin, a French educator, historian, and politician, to organize a modern international Olympics. The first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens, Greece, in 1896. Greece will again host the Games in 2004.

More information on subjects mentioned in this imaginary site is in the following World Book articles: Greece, Ancient | Hercules | Marathon | Mythology [Greek Mythology] | Olympic Games

Glossary for the 130th Olympic Games

Hellas: The name the ancient Greeks used for their land.

Married: Married women who attempted to watch the men's events or even the Maidens' Race could be punished by being thrown off a nearby mountain. The ancient Greek historian Pausanias wrote of a widow named Callipateira who escaped this fate, however. Desperate to watch her son compete at the Olympics, she disguised herself as a male trainer. When she was discovered, the judges freed her out of respect for her father, brothers, and son, all of whom had been victorious there. Following this, however, the judges required all trainers to strip before entering Olympic arenas.

Barbarians: The ancient Greeks thought of themselves as superior to all other peoples, whom they called barbarians. The word barbarian comes from the Greek word barbaros (stammering), which at first meant simply a person who spoke a language the ancient Greeks could not understand. But the Greeks soon began to use the word insultingly to refer to foreigners.

130th Olympic Games: Held in 258 B.C.

Zeus was the ruler of the gods in Greek mythology. Zeus was a sky and weather god, especially associated with rain, thunder, and lightning. The Greeks believed he was all-knowing and all-seeing. The Greeks considered Zeus a father figure and a protector, especially of guests and strangers.

Hellanodikai: Men chosen from the city of Elis to organize and judge the Olympic Games. Their name meant "judges of the Greeks."

Hellene: The ancient Greeks called themselves Hellenes.

Olympia: A beautiful valley in northwestern Peloponnese in southern Greece, Olympia was used only for the Olympic Games.

City-state: Independent cities or towns and the villages, farmland, and colonies dependent on them.

Elis: A city-state in southwestern Greece that gained control over Olympia and the Olympic Games in 572 B.C., after a long struggle with the nearby city of Pisatis.

Italia: The ancient Greeks' name for Italy.

Gallia: An ancient name for an area of western Europe that included what is now France.

Hispania: The ancient Greeks' name for what is now Spain.

Libya: The ancient Greeks' name for Africa.

Anatolia: A large mountainous peninsula now occupied by the modern country of Turkey.

Thrace: A once-independent nation on the Balkan Peninsula now occupied by the modern countries of Turkey, Greece, and Bulgaria.

Pontus Euxinus: The ancient Greeks' name for the Black Sea.

Mare Internum: The ancient Greeks' name for the Mediterranean Sea.

Air Herakles: Herakles is sometimes credited with being the first person to use a javelin.

Javelin: A javelin is a light, slender spear thrown for distance in track and field meets. In ancient times, the javelin was used as a weapon of war and for hunting. Unlike the modern javelin, the ancient javelin had a leather thong for the athlete's fingers attached to its center of gravity to increase the distance and accuracy with which it could be thrown.

128th Games: Held in 266 B.C.

Athletes: The word athlete comes from an ancient Greek word meaning one who competes for a prize.

Hippodrome: An ancient curved arena for horse and chariot races first designed and built by the Greeks. The seats surrounded a long race course, and curved around one end of it. A wall in the center divided the course. It was usually from 600 to 800 feet (180 to 240 meters) long.

Discus: A round plate thrown for distance by the ancient Greeks. It was originally made of stone then later of bronze, iron, or lead.

Altis: The most sacred area of Olympia, it included the Temple of Zeus and the Temple of Hera.

Stade: A sprinting race of one stadion--630 feet (192 meters)--that was the only event in the Olympic Games from its official beginning in 776 B.C. until 724 BC.

1-stade-long: A distance equal to 630 feet (192 meters).

20 times the length of one stade: A distance equal to approximately 2.5 miles (4 kilometers), though the exact distance is not known.

Oxeis himantes: A type of glove made of hard leather strips worn by Greek boxers. The gloves, which featured an inner protective layer of wool, left the fingertips free.

Poems: Winning athletes at Olympia were often immortalized in poems, called epicinians, that they, their family, or their city-state commissioned from some of Greece's most famous poets.

Kithara: Also known as a cithara, this ancient musical instrument resembles a lyre, with a soundbox of wood and 5 to 11 strings.

Skin: Greek athletes protected their exposed skin from sunburn by first applying a layer of oil, followed by a coating of sand. This treatment also helped keep athletes cool in hot weather and warm in cold months.

Hebe: A goddess in Greek mythology who served nectar to the gods and goddesses on Mount Olympus. The name Hebe comes from a Greek word meaning youth or prime of life.

Founded: Some Greek myths credit Herakles with founding the Olympic Games. Others credit a Greek warrior named Pelops, who entered a chariot race to win the hand of a beautiful princess. In order to succeed, however, Pelops had to kill the princess's father. According to Greek mythology, Pelops founded the Games either to thank the gods for their help in his victory or to make amends for the killing.

Herakles: Also known by the Greek name Heracles or the Roman name Hercules, he was was one of the greatest heroes of Greek mythology.

past: Historians believe the ancient Greeks first organized athletic games as part of funeral ceremonies for important people. This practice probably existed by the 1200's B.C. Later, games became part of religious festivals honoring the gods.

Oracle at Delphi was the most important of all the ancient Greek shrines where people came to seek advice from prophets or prophetesses believed to have special powers to speak on behalf of a god. The oracle at Delphi was dedicated to the god Apollo.

524 years ago: The first Olympics were held in 776 B.C.

Olympiads: Beginning in about 300 B.C., the ancient Greeks figured time using the Olympiad, the period of four years that elapsed between two successive celebrations of the Olympic Games. All events were dated from 776 B.C., the start of the first known Olympiad.

Strigils: Metal scrapers used by the ancient Greeks and Romans after a bath or gymnastic exercise to remove oil, sweat, and dirt from the skin.

alpha: The first letter in the Greek alphabet.

omega: The 24th and last letter of the Greek alphabet.

Mount Olympus: The highest mountain in Greece, Mount Olympus was the home of the gods in Greek mythology.

Minotaur: A monster with the head of a bull and the body of a man, the Minotaur was the offspring of a bull and the wife of King Minos of Crete.

Girdle: A belt, sash, or cord worn around the waist.

Pillars of Herakles: The ancient Greek name for two huge rocks that sit on either side of the Strait of Gibraltar, a narrow body of water that connects the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.

Hesperides: In Greek mythology, the Hesperides were nymphs who lived at the western end of the world. They guarded golden apples that the goddess Gaea (Earth) had given to the goddess

Hera: when Hera married Zeus, king of the gods, Ladon, a sleepless dragon, helped the Hesperides guard the apples.

Pyre: A pile of wood for burning a dead body as a funeral rite.

Rhabdos: A forked wand used by athletic trainers to point out correct body positions on their pupils.

Spartan: Sparta, the strongest land-based power in ancient Greece, and Athens, the strongest naval power, remained rivals, and often enemies, for hundreds of years. The Peloponnesian War fought by the two city-states from 431 B.C. to 404 B.C. devastated Greece and contributed to its conquest in 338 B.C. by Philip II, king of Macedonia and father of Alexander the Great. women Spartan girls engaged in athletic competitions, a practice shocking to most other Greeks.

Statue: Perhaps the most famous statue in the ancient world, the Statue of Zeus at Olympia now ranks as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Made in about 435 B.C. by the Greek sculptor Phidias, the statue stood approximately 40 feet (12 meters) high and showed Zeus on his throne. Zeus's robe and ornaments were made of gold and his flesh was ivory. The statue was destroyed by a severe fire in about A.D. 475 after it had been transported to Constantinople (now Istanbul).

The third year of the 107th Olympiad: The ancient Greek equivalent of the modern Western date 350 B.C.

Hoplitodromos: An ancient Olympic event in which competitors ran two lengths of the stadium wearing full battle dress--a helmet and shinguards--and carrying a shield.

Pentathlon: A competition in the ancient Olympics with five events--the discus throw, the javelin toss, the long jump, running, and wrestling-- added in 708 B.C.

Standard: To insure fairness in the Olympic's discus throw, the organizers kept an official set of discuses of equal weight.

Pankratiast: A participant in the pankration, a brutal ancient Olympic event combining kick-boxing and wrestling. Pankratiasts were allowed to attack their opponent in any way they wished, except by biting and gouging the eyes, ears, and nose.

Marathon, a coastal plain in Greece, was the site of one of the most important battles in the history of Western civilization. There, in 490 B.C., a Greek army defeated an invading army of Persians and saved Greece from becoming part of the Persian Empire. The modern marathon, a race of 26 miles (42 kilometers), was never an event in the ancient Olympics.

Run to Sparta: The Battle of Marathon took place in 490 B.C. Phidippides' 36-hour trip from Athens to Sparta was about 149 miles.

The 62nd Olympic Games: The ancient Greek equivalent of the modern Western date 532 B.C.

66th Olympic Games: The ancient Greek equivalent of the modern Western date 516 B.C.

During the 77th Olympic Games: The ancient Greek equivalent of the modern Western date 472 B.C.

78th Olympic Games: The ancient Greek equivalent of the modern Western date 468 B.C.

Pindar, (518?-438? B.C.), was the greatest lyric poet of ancient Greece. He became famous for his stately, intricate poems praising victorious athletes at the Olympic Games and other ancient Greek competitions. Pindar's fame was so great that when Alexander the Great burned Thebes, the poet's native city, to the ground, Pindar's house was the only one spared.

Maidens' Race: The Maidens' Race was not an official event in the Olympic Games.

racecourse: The racecourse for the girls' competition was 5/6 the length of the men's track, about 528 feet (160 meters).

Peplos: A thick tunic or outer garment usually worn like a shawl by women of ancient Greece.

Tunics: Contestants in the girls' race wore a tunic hanging almost to the knees that covered only the left shoulder and left breast.

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The India Pictograph

Covering a large part of Asia, this imaginary news site focuses on the ancient civilizations which gave rise to Eastern cultures. Much of the knowledge that developed in the ancient Asian civilizations eventually became global knowledge. Ancient Indian mathematicians invented the Hindu-Arabic number system and Chinese inventers developed ways of making paper. The first Indian civilization started in about 2500 B.C. in the Indus valley, and developed pictography (writing using pictures). Others followed, culminating in the Gupta Empire from about A.D.320 to about 500.

Go to The India Pictograph in Surf the Ages.

More information on subjects mentioned in this imaginary site is in the following World Book articles: India (History) | Indus Valley Civilization | Gupta Dynasty.

Mohenjo-Daro's Great Plan

Overview: The Indus Valley city of Mohenjo-Daro never had a Web site. But if the Internet had existed 4,000 years ago, it is likely that this highly commercial city as well as others of the Indus Valley Civilization would have been eager to use this modern form of advertisement.

The Indus Valley Civilization was the largest and one of the earliest of the world's ancient civilizations. Yet many aspects of this civilization remain mysterious, including its language, religion, and form of government. Scholars do not know the actual names of Indus cities or even what the people called themselves. In part, this is because the writing system developed by the Indus people remains largely undeciphered.

By 1700 B.C., the Indus Valley Civilization had broken up into smaller cultures. The precise causes for this decline remain uncertain. But historians believe geologic changes that altered the flow and courses of rivers in the region played a major role.

Go to Mohenjo-Daro's Great Plan in Surf the Ages.

More information on subjects mentioned in this imaginary site is in the following World Book articles: Indus Valley civilization | Sculpture (Beginnings)| World, History of the (Early centers of civilization [The Indus Valley]).

Glossary of Mohenjo-Daro's Great Plan

Mohenjo-Daro. The name the ancient residents of Mohenjo-Daro used for their city remains unknown. This ancient city covered a site in what is now Pakistan and was named for a nearby village. Mohenjo-Daro means "the mound of the dead" in Sindhi, a language spoken in Pakistan.

Indus Valley: The name ancient residents of the Indus Valley used for their civilization remains unknown. This civilization was centered in the vast river plains of what are now Pakistan and northwestern India.

Sumer: An ancient civilization in what is now southeastern Iraq.

glazes: The artisans of Mohenjo-Daro made a type of pottery known today as faïence. They used glazes to create designs on the clay, then baked the pieces in a kiln until the glazes turned color.

seals: The seals show the rounded forms of bulls, elephants, rhinoceroses, and other animals, along with triangular, curved, and vertical signs. Such seals show the ability of the Indus people to create intaglio--sculpture in which figures are carved into the background--with delicate, curved lines.

one-horned creature: Images of a one-horned creature, which may have represented a mythical unicorn, were common in the Indus Valley. The curved horn of the Indus Valley unicorn does not protrude from the center of its forehead but from back of the head.

written script: The system of writing developed by the people of the Indus Valley civilization as early as 3300 B.C. consists of about 400 signs, most of which were pictographs (simple drawings representing words). Scholars have made limited progress in deciphering this script. In part, this is because Indus inscriptions, which appear only on stone seals and other small objects, are brief, averaging no more than about five signs each. Some scholars believe that longer Indus inscriptions might have been written on palm leaves or cloth which have perished.

seasonal rains: This refers to the southwesterly monsoon, a seasonal wind that blows over the northern part of the Indian Ocean, especially the Arabian Sea, and over most of the surrounding land areas. The southwesterly monsoon blows continually from April to October, bringing heavy rains to southern and southeastern Asia, including the modern countries of Bangladesh, Burma, India, and Thailand.

zebus: Cattle that have a large, fatty hump over the shoulders and a large fold of skin under the throat.

deodar: A cedar tree of the Hindu Kush and the Himalaya, now cultivated as an ornamental tree and a source of very durable wood.

Ebla and Mari: Ancient kingdoms in what is now Syria.

Elam: An ancient civilization in what is now Iran.

slip: A creamy substance, made of clay and water, which serves as a cement.

fillets: Narrow bands or ribbons worn around the head to hold the hair in place, often as an ornament.

lapis lazuli: A beautiful azure-blue stone used in jewelry since ancient times. The mountain region of Afghanistan has been the main source of this stone since ancient times.

carnelian: A gem made from cut and polished red or reddish-brown quartz. The carnelian was one of the first stones to be used as a decoration. People of ancient times believed the carnelian had special powers that would protect its wearer from weapons and evil spirits.

Great Sea: The Arabian Sea.

woven cotton: The world's oldest evidence of cotton weaving, dated to about 3300 B.C., was found at Mohenjo-Daro.

3 miles: 5 kilometers.

most floods: Archaeological excavations at Mohenjo-Daro have revealed three floods that caused such severe damage that many areas needed rebuilding.

conquest and warfare: The cities of the Indus Valley did not maintain armies. Archaeologists have found no evidence of violence against people, including killing. Nor do any of the human remains recovered show any signs of violence.

Leaders and priests: Modern scholars know little about the government and religion of the Indus Valley cities. The existence of a common language, system of writing, and plan for city layouts as well as standardized weights suggest some sort of central authority. Indus Valley cities may have functioned as independent units or served as regional capitals. Some scholars have suggested that they were governed by business and religious leaders and rich property owners.

Great Bath: Although most scholars of the ancient Indus Valley civilization agree that this public water tank, the earliest in the ancient world, was used for special religious ceremonies, they have no proof of the structure's use.

39 feet by 23 feet and 8 feet deep: 12 meters by 7 meters and 2.5 meters deep.

30 feet by 27 feet: 9 meters by 8 meters.

Hostel: Excavations in Mohenjo-Daro have revealed a structure that archaeologists believe may have been used as an inn.

Ganeriwala: An Indus city as large as Mohenjo-Daro, Ganeriwala lay about 180 miles (300 kilometers) northeast of Mohenjo-Daro along the Ghaggar-Hakra River (also known as the Sarasvati River). This river, which dried up beginning in about 1700 B.C., once flowed east of, and parallel to, the Indus River.

Harappa: Located about 350 miles (560 kilometers) northeast of Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa was a major Indus Valley city on the Ravi River.

Lothal: A major Indus Valley port near the coast of the Arabian Sea, Lothal had a 700-foot dock built of an estimated one million bricks as well as huge granaries and factories for making beads. It lay about 450 miles (720 kilometers) southeast of Mohenjo-Daro.

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The Roman Forum

The name of this imaginary news site, comes from the name of the center of government of the Roman Empire. The Forum was an area which included the Curia (Senate House) and the Tabularium (Hall of Records). Romans heard much of their news from visits to the Forum. They went to the Forum to hear great orators speak, or to see treasures which had been captured in battles in distant parts of the empire. The Roman Forum news site aims to give news of Rome from its development in the 700's B.C. to the collapse of the West Roman Empire in the late A.D. 400's.

Go to The Roman Forum in Surf the Ages.

More information on subjects mentioned in this imaginary site is in the following World Book articles: Rome, Ancient | Forum, Roman

Vesuvius Blows its Top

Pliny the Younger never sat for an interview with an online news magazine, but he and his mother did survive the eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79, when he was only 17. The interview in this feature is based on Pliny's detailed account of the disaster and description of the death of his uncle, Pliny the Elder, written in a letter to the Roman historian Tacitus.

The eruption of Mount Vesuvius ranks as one of the worst volcanic disasters in human history. Yet, since the two cities were rediscovered in the mid-1700's, excavators have uncovered invaluable information about Roman art, architecture, and culture and about the everyday lives of the ancient Romans. Today, Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the mainland of Europe, and has had eight major eruptions in the last 200 years. But still, more than 500,000 people now live in shadow of the volcano, drawn by the same pleasant climate and the rich volcanic soil that attracted the area's ancient Roman residents.

Go to Vesuvius Blows its Top in Surf the Ages.

More information on subjects mentioned in this imaginary site is in the following World Book articles: Herculaneum | Naples | Pliny the Elder | Pliny the Younger | Pompeii | Tacitus, Cornelius | Vesuvius | Volcano (Composite volcanoes).

Glossary of Vesuvius Blows Its Top

A.D. VII ID. SEPT. ANNO DCCCXXXII AVC: This date would be written in our calendar system as September 6, A.D. 79. The first line, a.d. VII Id. Sept., means the 7th day before the Ides of September. The Roman calendar at this time was based on the first three phases of the moon. The days were counted backwards from lunar phases. The new moon was the day of the Kalends, the moon's first quarter was the day of the Nones, and the Ides fell on the day of the full moon. In months with 31 days--March, May, July and October--the Ides fell on the 15th. On other months, the Ides fell on the 13th. Using Roman numerals, DCCCXXXII is 832. Anno DCCCXXXII AVC means in the 832nd year since the founding of the city of Rome. The numbering system for years counted from 753 B.C., the year that Rome was founded.

Pliny the Younger (A.D. 61 or 62-113?), born Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, was adopted by his uncle, Pliny the Elder. He began practicing law at age 18 and by age 20 was considered one of the most learned people of his time. A highly respected public administrator, he is best remembered for his Letters, collected in 10 books. One of the letters, addressed to the historian Tacitus, gives a detailed account of the eruption of Vesuvius, and describes the death of his uncle.

much higher: Excavators have found the remains of about 2,000 people in Pompeii and hundreds in Herculaneum, though some scientists believe the death toll for the three cities may have reached 10,000.

Pliny the Elder (A.D. 23 or 24-79), wrote many historical and technical works, but only his 37-volume Natural History has survived. A lawyer, he also held important public offices. He was commander of the Roman fleet at Misenum, near Pompeii, when Mount Vesuvius erupted in A.D. 79, and he died there trying to help the refugees.

millaria: Roman miles, each measuring about 5,000 feet long.

Etruscans: People who migrated to what is now central Italy in about 800 B.C.

Julia Felix: The actual owner of one of the largest and most beautifully furnished houses in Pompeii, Julia Felix was a leader in Pompeian society. After a major earthquake in A.D. 62 damaged her home, she financed its repair by turning parts of her building into public baths, shops, apartments, and an inn.

Poppaea: The last name of one of Pompeii's richest families. Emperor Nero married the beautiful Sabina Poppaea, a native of Pompeii, in A.D. 62. Sabina, who was accused of engineering the murder of Nero's mother and his tutor, died in A.D. 65, kicked to death by her husband.

Valeria Hedone: Valeria Hedone was an actual Pompeian innkeeper whose last name means "pleasure" She advertised that soldiers could find cheap wine at her establishment but could also spend more for "some really good Falernian wine."

Bacchus: The Roman god of wine

Vale! Latin for "farewell."

destructive earthquake: A major earthquake rocked Pompeii and the surrounding region on Feb. 5, A.D. 62. The quake seriously damaged many buildings in Pompeii and Herculaneum as well as the two cities' plumbing systems. Modern geologists view this quake as one of the first signs that Vesuvius was returning to life.

cloud: Pliny the Younger is the first known observer of what scientists now call a Plinian eruption in his honor. This highly explosive type of eruption produces a huge vertical column of pumice (a volcanic glass), ash, and gases. The column actually consists of numerous jets of volcanic material roaring from a volcano. Modern examples of Plinian eruptions are those of Mount St. Helens in Washington in 1980 and Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991.

straight up: Modern scientists have determined from the size of volcanic materials found at various distances from Vesuvius that the Plinian column produced by the volcano in A.D. 79 rose to a height of from 9 to 16 miles.

descended: The black and dreadful cloud that Pliny watched descend on the Bay of Naples was the sixth, and final, pyroclastic surge produced by the eruption. This glowing cloud of hot ash and dust is created when a Plinian column collapses. Instead of blasting upward, the ejected material races down the slopes of the mountain like a tidal wave, destroying everything in its path.

flood: Scientists now believe that pyroclastic surges (glowing clouds of hot ash and dust) killed many of Vesuvius's victims. A 2001 study of the skeletons of 80 people killed at Herculaneum revealed that these victims died almost instantly as a surge rolled over them, burning and suffocating them. The heat was so intense--calculated at about 1700° F.--that it blackened the inside of their skulls.

Where Profit Is Joy: An inscription found in the house of a Pompeian wood-turner by modern excavators.

garum: A sauce made of dried fish with salt added as a preservative, widely used in Roman dishes. Garum for the poor and slaves was made with anchovies. Producing and exporting garum ranked as one of Pompeii's major industries.

Forum: The Forum was the commercial heart of Pompeii as well as the city's religious and political center.

Jupiter: The king of the gods in Roman mythology.

Juno: Wife and sister of Jupiter, the king of the Roman gods, Juno was the goddess of marriage and childbirth.

Minerva: The Roman goddess of handicrafts and wisdom.

the Stabian, the Forum, and the Central: The Stabian Baths were hundreds of years old at the time of the eruption, while the Forum Baths dated from the establishment of Pompeii as a Roman colony in 80 B.C. The Central Baths were under construction when Pompeii was destroyed.

M. Crassus Frugi: The actual owner of a Pompeian bathing establishment, M. Crassus Frugi reserved his saltwater baths for exclusive patrons.

hotel: Discovered in 1999 under an expressway, the hotel was still under construction at the time of the eruption.

couches: Many wealthy Romans ate dinner while reclining on couches.

A. Umbricius Scaurus's: The actual owner of one of Pompeii's largest garum-producing companies, A.Umbricius Scaurus served as one of Pompeii's two chief officials during the reign of Emperor Claudius (A.D. 41-A.D. 54).

braziers: Large metal pans or trays holding burning charcoal or coal, used for heating rooms.

central heating: The homes of wealthy people were heated by pumping hot air through openings in the walls and spaces under the floors.

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